
VRTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 



' DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. 



BULLETIN 



No. 27. 



THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY. 



CULTURE OF THE SUGAR-BEET 



MANUFxiCTUEE OF BEET SUGAR 



CHEMIST. 



PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. 



WASHINGTON; 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1890. 




Book >Ws i 



o / 



y. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION OF CHEMISTEY. 
BULLETIN 



No. 27. 



THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY. * '^ 



CULTURE OF THE SUGAR-BEET 



MANUFACTUEE OF BEET 80GAE. 



H. ^^. \\riLp-Y. 



3 

CHEMIST. 



PlIliLISHED M AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETAIU' OF AGRICUL 



TURF. 



WASHIlsrGTO]^". 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
1890. 



'^ 



\ 






^:^^^ 



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>^' 



P R E F A T O R Y NOTE 



Washington, D. C, 31aij 1L>, 1890. 
Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith^ for your inspection and 
approval, the manuscript of Bulletin No. 27 of the chemical division, 
entitled "The Sugar-Beet Industry." 
Kespectfully, 

H. W. Wiley, 

Chemist. 
Hon. J= M. Rusk, 

Secretary. 



INTRODUCTION. 



During the past year the Department of Agriculture has received 
many hundreds of inquiries from all parts of the United States relating 
to the culture of the sugar-beet and the production of sugar therefrom. 
This growing interest in beet culture, together with the fact that all the 
previous publications of the Department concerning the sugar-beet are 
out of print, has led to the preparation of the present bulletin. 

The object of this bulletin is to give, as nearly as possible, the present 
condition of the beet sugar industry of the United States; to locate, ap- 
proximately, those portions of the country which are best suited for the 
production of the sugar-beet, and to indicate the line of work necessary 
to the successful introduction and extension of the beet sugar industry 
in this country. 

In connection with the elaboration of the above plan, a resume will 
be given of the publications of the Department on this subject, above 
referred to, and which are no longer accessible to the public. The prin- 
cipal publications, omitting the brief accounts published in Annual Ke- 
ports which have been issued by the Department, are as follows : 

(1) " Eeport on the Culture of the Sugar-beet and the Manufacture 
of Sugar therefrom in France and the United States," by Dr. Wm. 
McMurtrie; Government Printing Office, 1880, pages 294. 

(2) "The Beet Sugar Industry of the United States," Bulletin No. 3, 
of the Chemical Division, pages 24 to 27 with 12 mean temperature 
charts. 

(3) Bulletin No. 5 of the Chemical Division, Part Second, "Beet 
Sugar," pages 37 to 137, inclusive, with 12 plates. 

In addition to the above publications, numerous articles, mostly ab- 
stracts of the above, have appeared in the Annual Eeports, and a few 
pages of the bulletin entitled " Encouragement to the Sorghum and 
Beet Sugar Industry," issued in 1883 by the Department, were devoted 
to the sugar-beet. 

It is evident that a work of this kind for the United States must be 
chiefly a compilation of the results obtained in other countries, since 
the industry here is so young that little is known of it from our own in- 
vestigations. Nevertheless, a large quantity of material has been 
gathered during the past year relating to beet sugar in various parts of 
the United States, and this matter will also be incorporated in this bul- 



letin. It must be understood that the object of this bulletin is not to 
give a comi)lete treatise upon the culture of the sugar-beet and the 
manufacture of sugar therefrom, but simply to indicate in a general 
way, tor the information of those interested, the general principles of 
this industry. One especial object which will be kept in view will be 
to prevent those intending to engage in this industry from going wrong 
in the beginning, and squandering their money and time in battling 
with i^roblems which science has already met and overcome. It is fur- 
ther hoped that the careful perusal of the data which will be presented 
will prevent any mistakes from being made which would end in finan- 
cial disaster and which are so apt to attend the 'early history of every 
industry. 

There will probably be found for many years to come in the United 
States more enthusiasm than knowledge connected with the sugar-beet, 
and the result of this will be, unless great care be taken, that many vent- 
ures will be made which may result in financial disaster, disaster which 
could have been avoided by a thorough comprehension of the funda- 
mental principles of the industry. 

In so far as the manufacture of sugar from the matured beet is con- 
cerned we are able to start at the present time with the accumulated 
knowledge and experience of three-quarters of a century of investiga- 
tion. So perfect have the processes of manufacture become that nearly 
all of the sugar which is stored in the beet can be secured in merchanta- 
ble form and by comparatively inexpensive methods. By the term inex- 
pensive, however, it must be understood that the actual processes of 
manufacture are denoted and not the cost of the machinery. The vari- 
ous processes for the extraction of the sugar from the beet, the best 
methods of clarifying the juice and of evaporating it and for separating 
the sugar from the molasses, are thoroughly well understood and are no 
longer legitimate subjects for public experiment. The great problem 
in this country is the agricultural one. The selection of suitable soil, 
the finding of the proper climatic conditions, and instruction in the 
method of i)lanting, cultivating, and harvesting the beets, are all matters 
of vital importance. Without a careful study of these subjects, and 
without the proper knowledge thereof, it will be a hopeless task to in- 
troduce successfully the beet sugar industry into this country. 

One of the great dangers to be avoided is the formation of hasty con- 
clusions in regard to the proi)er localities for the protluction of the 
sugar-beet. Often without any study whatever of the climatic condi- 
tions or of -the character of the soil, efibrts are made to build large and 
expensive factories, which as often have to be abandoned on account of 
having been wrongly located. Tlie studies which have been made here- 
tofore in regard to climatic conditions have been of such a nature as to 
locate, in a general way, the areas in the United States suitable for the 
culture of the sugar-beet. 

It has been found in general tljat the coast valleys of California, 



aud probably- large areas near the coast in Oregon and Wasliington, 
certain parts of the Dakotas and Nebraska, localities in Minnesota, 
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, parts of northern Illinois, Indiana, 
Ohio, and New York present favorable conditions for sngar-beet culture, 
but in the localities thus broadly intimated there are certain restricted 
areas most suitable to the sugar-beet, and it is only these restricted 
areas to which we must look for success. The fact that in one locality, 
for instance in Nebraska, good sugar-beets can be produced would be 
no warrant whatever for assuming that all parts of that State were 
equally suitable for this purpose, and this remark may be applied to 
every one of the States mentioned above. 

Sugar-beets have also been raised in other localities in the United 
States, notably in New England, New Jersey, Delaware, aud Kansas, 
and while there may be areas in the New England States where beets 
can be successfully grown, it must be admitted that the States last 
named stand in the second rank of beet sugar producing localities. In 
Kansas, during the last year, as will be shown in the body of this re 
port, sugar-beets were grown and a considerable quantity of sugar 
manufactured therefrom. This, however, does not show that Kansas 
will be able to compete with more favorable localities in the production 
of beet sugar. 

In general it may be said that the summers in Kansas are too hot to 
expect the production of a sugar-beet uniform in its nature and con- 
taining a high percentage of sugar. 

If the sugar-beet industry is to succeed in this country this success 
must come from sharp competition with the same industry in older 
countries, where its conditions are better understood and where the 
localities suited to it have been selected by long and often costly expe- 
rience. It must also compete with the sugar-cane industry, both of 
this country and of tropical countries, and for this reason we can only 
expect it to survive in those localities where soil and climatic condi- 
tions, proximity of fuel, cheapness of labor, and other favorable envi- 
ronments are found. 

It is to be hoped that the mistakes which have so long threatened 
the sorghum sugar industry with destruction may be avoided with the 
sugar-beet. Calm judgment and sober reason must not give way to 
enthusiasm and extravagant expectations. All conditions of success 
must be carefully studied, all the difficulties in the way of success must 
be intimately investigated and allowed for, and ample capital, coupled 
with judicious perseverance, must be enlisted in its behalf. 

Many attempts have been made for the past twenty-five years to in- 
troduce the beet-sugar industry into the United States. Factories have 
been located in the New England States, notably in Maine and Massa- 
chusetts, also in Delaware, in Illinois, and in California. With two ex- 
ceptions all of these ventures have brought with them financial disaster. 
The factories in New England, Delaware, and Illinois, and some of those 



8 

started in California have been abandoned. One factory in California 
Las been very successfully operated for a number of years, viz, the one 
at Alvarado. Another one, viz, at Watsonville, has been in successful 
operation for two years. From the success of these two it is reasonable 
to infer that others must also succeed when the proper conditions are 
supplied. It is well, however, that just now, when there seems to be 
such an awakening in regard to beet sugar, a few words of warning 
should be spoken. Any further financial disasters would exercise a 
most depressing effect upon the advancement of the industry. These 
disasters are sure to come if attempts are made to erect factories in a 
short time in localities where the capabilities of the soil and climate are 
untried, with capital insufficient in amount, and under the direction of 
those unskilled in all the branches of the industry itself. 

For the proper erection and completion of a beet sugar factory not 
jess than twelve months should be allowed, and even in this time it can 
only be properly accomplished under experienced technical control. 
During the present montb, March, 1890, letters have been received at 
this Dei)artment from i)ersons who contemplate the erection of a factory 
during the present season to be ready for operation by October 1, The 
orders for the machinery for these factories have not even yet been 
placed nor the contracts for the building let nor arrangements made for 
growing the beets. 

It is easy to see that if such a work as this is pushed forward it can 
only end in failure. In contrast with this I may cite the instance of 
another factory, which is now in course of erection, which was located 
after a whole year spent in studying the conditions of soil and climate 
and' in the actual growth of numerous plots of beets, and for which the 
machinery was ordered fully a year in advance of the time when it was 
to be used. The success of such a factory is almost a foregone conclu- 
sion. It is to be hoped that all persons intending to invCvSt in tlie beet 
sugar industry may follow the latter and not the former example. 



Plate 1. 



1 




The mature Sugar-beet, 

Scale, ^. 



JE 1. 



M 




THE SUGAR-BEET INDUSTRY. 



HISTORICAL. 



THE EARLY HISTOEY OF THE SUGAR-BEET AND THE MANUFACTURE 
OF SUGAR THEREFROM.* 

"It is difficult to trace the exact orij^in of this plant, wbicb has become 
of so much interest aucl value in Europe, and is not only of national 
but also of continental importance to the people of the other side of tbo 
Atlantic. Its antiquity finds evidence in the fact that Theophrastus 
described two varieties : the deep-red, and the white beet. Olivier de 
Serres, in his writings in 1590, makes mention only of the red beet, 
and states that it had not long been introduced into Europe, and says 
that "the juice yielded on boiling is similar to sugar sirup." This 
variety was introduced in England in 1548, but the white variety was 
not known until 1570. 

"According to the Abbe Eosier, four varieties were already known in 
1782, the small and large red, the yellow, and the white. The variety 
known as disette, and which is still grown in France for feeding pur- 
poses, was believed to have originated in Germany. It was brought into 
notice by Vilmorin, the ancestor of the present head of the great seed 
house of Vilmorin Audrieux & Co., who died in 1804, and was intro- 
duced by Perkins into England in 1786. 

"The root does not seem to have been considered as having an indus- 
trial value, and was cultivated only for the table or for cattle food until 
1747, when Margratt", a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, 
believing sugar to be a regular constituent of plants other than the 
sugar-cane, made examination of diflerent varieties of vegetables, and 
succeeded in separating from several kinds varying quantities of crystal- 
lizable sugar. His method of research consisted in cutting the material 
to be examined into thin slices, rapidly drying it, reducing to fine 
powder, and exhausting with diluted alcohol. The results of his re- 
searches were announced in a memoir read before the Berlin Academy 
of Sciences, in the year above mentioned. Of all the plants examined, 
he found the beet to be the richest in sugar, and believing that Europe 
would find in this root the basis of an immense industry, he urged the 
importance of his discovery upon the Academy, hoping to see valuable 

'Culture of the Sugar- Beet. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Special report No. 
28. By Dr. William McMurtrie. 1880. 

9 



10 

and practical results follow it ; Imfc lie w as not destined to see his hopes 
fnlfilled. His methods of work, which were at best imperfect, were of 
a nature to succeed only in the laboratory, and the prices of colonial 
sugars were so low as to render competition by the products from a new 
and untried source out of the question. 

" This important discovery, therefore, remained dormantfor nearly half 
a century, when one of Margrafit's pupils, Karl Franz Achard, son of a 
French refugee in Prussia after the revocation of the celebrated edict 
of Nantes, and director of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, again took 
up the line of research started by his preceptor, and finally succeeded 
in extracting sugar from the root on a comparatively large scale. The 
process he employed was peculiarly his own, and gave results which 
were at the time of an astonishing character. He announced his results 
in 1797, published his mode of operation, and in the latter part of 1799 
presented a sample of his product, with a description of his method, to 
the Institute of France, stating that the cost of production of musco- 
vado of good quality should not exceed 6 cents per iiound. Achard's 
statements were as much the subject of doubt and even of severe ridicule 
by the people of his time as are the statements made by the Department 
of Agriculture in relation to sugar produced at the present time from 
sorghnm and maize, and were even accepted with reserve by the mem- 
bers of the Institute of France, notwithstanding the high repute he 
enjoyed among his scientific confreres. The interest of the French Insti- 
tute was so aroused, however, that a commission was appointed by that 
body to make an examination of the work of Achard and to repeat his 
experiments. The commission consisted of Cels, Chaptal, Darcet, Four- 
croy, Guyton, Parmentier, Tessier, Vauquelin, and Deyeux. In their 
report they stated that Bermond had made unsuccessful experiments in 
the introduction of the culture of the sugarcane in France, and the 
same was the result with the sugar-maple, /or though the latter might 
l)0S8iblj' be grown it could never compete with the sugar- cane. Other 
plants had been experimented with ; the turnip, carrot, parsnip, chest- 
nut, stalks of maize, and many other plants were submitted to experi- 
ment, but, notwithstanding the assertions of certain enthusiasts, it was 
proven that none of these plants could supplant the cane, and that in 
spite of the sugar they were presumed to contain the experiments were 
unsuccessful. Such was the state of things when Achard made thie 
announcement of his experiments and results. 

'' The commission then proceed to state that they had repeated the ex- 
periments of Margafif to determine the value of their roots, finding them 
to contain a little over G per cent, of sugar. Thay applied the method 
of Achard for extraction on a larger scale, repeated several times, and 
succeeded in obtaining only a muscovado of very brown color and dis- 
agreeable to the taste. This muscovado, however, was readily purified 
by means of alcohol, and in this way a sugar candy was obtained dif- 
fering in no particular from that given by cane sugar. 



11 

"The conclusions arrived at were to the effect that if with Achard's 
process sug^ar may be extracted from the beet, the quantity was much 
less than that given by the alcohol jjrocess indicated by Margraff. 

"They then modified the experiments by working on the juice of un- 
cooked beets and obtained 25 per cent, more of muscovado; and as a 
final result of all their experiments they adopt as the cost of refined 
sugar about IS cents per pound, but think this figure may be reduced 
by improved methods. 

The report concludes as follows : 

It results from what precedes : 

(1) That it is certain that the beet which grows in France, and which may be recoo;- 
nized by its white flesh, traversed by red bands or rays, contains sugar as well as the 
same species grown at Berlin that Achard worked upon. 

(2) That the sugar may be extracted by various processes, aud acquire by aid of 
repeated purifications all the qualities of caue sugar. 

(3) That the quantity of sugar which this root contains is so great that attention 
should be given to its extraction. 

(4) If, as we are assured by Achard, we may, as it were, render this root richer in 
sugar at will by caring for its culture, it is desii'able that experiments be made upon 
this subject. 

(.5) That independently of these experiments it would be of value to determine if, 
among the several varieties, some do not exist more rich in sugar than those pointed 
out by Achard. 

(6) That, admitting the results of these experiments, it remains to be demonstrated 
that the beet may up to a certain point supplant the sugar-cane. 

(7) That it is true to say that the cost of sugar can not be determined with rigorous 
exactness without knowing the results of operations made on a large scale. How- 
ever, at the present time it may be presumed that this price would not be higher 
than that of cane sugar in ordinary times. 

(8) Finally, if Margraff should justly be cited as being the author of the discovery 
of sugar in the beet, it must also be admitted that Achard is the first to have made 
fortunate application of this discovery, not only in announcing the fiivorable quautity 
that may be extracted, but also in pointing out the processes to which we could re- 
sort for success. 

"Achard's appreciation of the action and conclusions of this commis- 
sion may be gleaned from the following letter addressed to Citizen von 
Mons, and dated Berlin, November 16, 1800 (Ann. de Chem. 39, 223): 

I thank you sincerely for sending me the interesting report of the Institute. I have 
noted with infinite pleasure that the researches made by the celebrated French chem- 
ists confirm my discovery. The diiferences found in the products as tu the quantities 
and qualities result either from the culture of the beet or the variety chosen for the 
tests. Notwithstanding the objections of the commission, I am still of the opinion 
that the best method consists in boiling the roots before expressing the juice, the 
clarification then taking place within the cells themselves by the coagulation of the 
albumen, so that we obtain the juice entirely clarified, or better clarified than it is 
possible to attain from raw beets by the addition of blood or other coagulable sub- 
stances. 

" But the report, of the French commission had the effect to dampen 
any enthusiasm that may have been aroused in France by the publica- 
tion of Achard's announcement, and for the few jears that immediately 



12 

followed it no interest seems to have been manifested there on the sub- 
ject. 

*' It was, however, otherwise in Germany. Achard's letter proves that 
his zeal was in no way abated, and other workers were eagerly following 
the new Hue of investigation and experiment now made so attractive 
by Achard ; and Lampadius, professor of chemistry aud metallurgy at 
the School of Mines at Freyburg, took it up, repeated the experiments 
of his eminent predecessor in the work, improved upon his methods, 
from the average results of which he estimated the cost of refined sugar 
would not exceed 18 cents per English pound, about the same limit es- 
tablished by the commission of the Institute. Hermbstaedt also, mod- 
ifying the method of Achard, succeeded in extracting from 125 pounds 
of roots of Beta vulgaris 5;^ pounds of brown sugar and 1^ pounds of 
sirup, which draiu'^d off. The Baron de Koppy, having interest and 
confidence in the methods and results of Achard, erected in 1805 upon 
his estate at Krayn, near the town of Strehleu, in Lower Silesia, works 
capable of the annual extraction of the sugar contained in about 525 
tons of roots, besides the manufacture of the rum aud vinegar resulting 
from the utilization of the wastes of manufacture, viz, the pulp and 
molasses. These works of Koppy were constructed after the designs 
furnished by Achard, aud carried on according to the methods he had 
determined. Achard also erected a factory on his own estate at Cuueru, 
near Steinau, on the Oder. The results obtained by these two enter- 
prising pioneers in the beet-sugar industry were followed by the estab- 
lishment of other works at Athaldsleben and near Augsburg, and the 
interest which had thus been aroused in Germany bid fair to be again 
communicated to the French. This was hastened by a letter of Achard 
to the editor of the Moniteur, and published in that journal of October 
2, 1808. This so thoroughly explains his position, the character of his 
work, and the progress he had made since the report upon his former 
results, that we deem it of value to reproduce it here : 

Sir : The manufacture of sugar in Europe being, in all its relations, aud principally 
under existing circumstances, a very important object, I believe that you will not 
refuse to give publicity, in the Moniteur, to an expose of the results of my researches 
upon the manufacture of sugar from the beet root, aud the advantages which this 
new kind of European industry assures to all nations for which sugar is an exotic 
staple. 

It was decided by the report given by the celebrated chemists. Gels, Chaptal, Four- 
croy, Guytou, Parmentier, Tessier, Vauciuelin, aud Deyeux, under date of January 
2'), IHOu, to the class of mathematical and physical sciences of the National Institute 
of France, ujiou the examination they made of my researches tending to the profit- 
able extraction of sugar from beets — 

A. Tliat the beet contains sugar. 

B. That the sugar may be extracted by different processes, and acquire by suffi- 
cient purification all the properties of cane sugar. 

C. That even by following my first methods, which were still very imperfect at the 
time the celebrated French chemists were occupied with their varification, it was to 
be presumed that the price of beet-root sugar would not be higher than that of the 
cane in ordinary times. 



13 

D. That all doubts of tho existence of sugar in the beet I'oot and the possibilitj' of 
extracting it being dissipated, it only remains to be desired that the experiments 
made on a larger scale may give to my work upon this object the degree of authen- 
ticity it merits. 

Encouraged by the suffrage of so illustrious savants, I have labored during eight 
years to perfect the manufacture of sugar from beets by experimental researches made 
on a large scale in a factory I have established on an estate called Cuneru, which I 
own near Steinau, in Lower Silesia. My labors have led to the datermination of a 
much more profitable method for extracting the sugar from beet roots, so that by my 
new processes 25,000 kilograms (55,000 pounds) of these roots furnished 2,309 French 
pounds (2,098 English pounds) of uuclayed muscovado, richer in pure crystalline 
sugar, in the relation of 662 to 591 than the brown muscovado of Jamaica, or 1,923 
French pounds (1,743 English pounds) of a clayed muscovado richer in pure sugar in 
the relation of 66G to 664 than the white muscovado of Martinique, while by follow- 
ing my first imperfect methods the commission appointed by the Institute of France 
to repeat my experiments extracted and was able to extract from 25,000 kilograms 
(55,000 pounds) of roots, the product of 1 arpeut of land (about 1 acre), only 782 pounds 
of muscovado (711 English pounds), containing 448 French pounds (407 English 
pounds) of pure sugar; that is, about one-third the quantity that may be extracted 
by aid of my new processes. The cost of production of muscovado from beet root ac- 
cording to my new processes, provided the extraction is carried on in a well-established 
factory, and the manufacturer secures his roots at the moderate price by growing them 
himself, as those in the colonies almost exclusively cultivate the cane, is compensated 
for as much by the leaves of the beets, which serve as food for cattle, as by the rum, 
other spirits, and vinegar extracted from the wastes of manufacturing the muscovado; 
that is, the i)ulp of the root exhausted of the juice which the press can remove, and 
tlie molasses. 

The same being the case witli the cane, it follows that sugar may be extracted with 
the same pecuniary advantage from the beet in Europe as from the cane in the islands. 
An arpent yielding, according to the basis determined by the French commission 
charged with repeating my first experiments, 25,000 kilograms of beets, from which is 
extracted by my perfected methods 2,309 and 1,923 pounds of muscovado, according to 
the qnality given it, it follows that to produce 10,000,000 pounds of muscovado, it is 
necessary to set apart during the summer mouths only between 4,330 and 5,200 arpents 
of land to the culture of the beet. Au area of this extent is too small to cause its use 
in the production of indigenous sugar to be followed by the restriction of other im- 
portant cultures, and this is all the more true since it is necessary to set apart for the 
culture of the beet, as it is practiced in this province, only fields which have been 
used two years for the culture of spring and winter wheats and remain a third year 
in fallow without furnishing other products than the pasturage of cattle that are al- 
lowed to range upon it, and which is more than compensated for by the leaves of 
beets. The facts I have established in the preceding article are based — 

A. Upon the report which the commission appointed to repeat my first essays in the 
extraction of sugar from the beet made in 1800 to the class of mathematical and 
physical sciences of the Institute of Sciences of Franco. 

B. Upon the later official examinations of my manufacture of sugar at Cuneru by 
my newly perfected methods and the results they have given, made by a commission 
appointed by the Prussian Government. 

C. Upon the results furnished by abeet-root sugar factory established in this prov- 
ince according to my instructions by M. le Baron de Koppy on his place called Krayn; 
near the town of Strehlen. This establishment is adapted to the annual extraction 
of the sugar contained in 10,000 Silesian quintals or 577,500* kilograms of beets, be- 
sides the manufacture of the rum and vinegar which is obtained from the wastes of 
preparing muscovado, viz, the pulp of pressed beets and molasses. 

*537 tons of 2,200 pounds. 



14 

The constant success with wliich the mamifactuie of muscovado established at 
Krayu has worked during three years, and the profit it assures its possessor, confirm 
the results presented by the official examinations which have been made of the manu- 
facture of muscovado according to my perfected methods, so that it is perfectly 
proven : 

(1) That the muscovado furnished by the beet root is of a quality equal to that of 
the cane. 

(2) That the quantity of muscovado furnished by beet roots is found so thoroughly 
proportional to the cost of its extraction and the profits obtained from the waste prod- 
ucts of manufacture in employing them for that of rum or other spirits of the better 
(juality, and a very good vinegar, that these advantages under favorable local circum- 
stances wholly, and under all circumstances in a great part, compensate for the cost 
of production of muscovado from beets, as is also the case with regard to the mus- 
covado from the cane — the cost of extraction of which is more or less compensated 
for by the rum extracted from the waste products they leave. 

(3) That the manufacture of sugar from beet roots may become the object of an 
important industry for Europe. 

(a) By the very considerable sums it will save from exportation. 

(6) By the means it will furnish a large number of persons of the indigent classes 
to procure subsistence in the manual labor it requires. 

(c) By the independence in which, with regard to this staple, it places Europe and 
other parts of the world which are really the principal depositories. 
(Signed) 

ACHARD. 

CuNERN, near Steinau, Lower Silesia, 1808. 

" The following article, from the Moniteur of March 2, 1811, will also 
be of interest in this connection, as corroborating the statements of 
Achard : 

His excellency the minister of the interior, in making his report to His Majesty 
upon the sugar of beet roots, had hoped to be able to assure him that, according to 
the testimony of M. Deyeux, this sugar would present the double advantage of en- 
riching those who entered into the manufacture and cost a price low enough for con- 
sumers. 

But if M, Deyeux wasuuable to give this assurance ou account of the fact that the 
main end of his work was in the interest of French speculators, to efl'ect an improve- 
ment upon the processes of the German chemists, we may find it in the success already 
obtained in the establishment of the Baron de Koppy, success thoroughly recognized 
in Germany, and of which we have an eye-witness in M. Boudet, chief pharmacist to 
the army. 

It will be remembered that M. Achard, chemist in Berlin, who first conceived the 
idea of making the extraction of sugar from beet roots an object of speculation and 
manufacture, announced in the Moniteur of 1802 the advantages of this sugar, which 
he procured by a process more perfect than that which four years before had not been 
unreservedly accepted by the Institute of France. 

This number of the Moniteur having reached Breslau, capital of Silesia, and con- 
sequently in the neighborhood of the two factories said to exist in the province of 
Prussia, M. Boudet, being there at the time, considered it of value to verify the facts 
advanced by Achard, in order in case of need te be able to destroy or increase the im- 
pression which the article in the Moniteur may have produced in France. He accord- 
ingly betook himself to the house of Baron de Koppy, at Krain,* near the town of 
Strelzlen,* and visited the manufactory. He caused to be sent to M. Parmentier a 
memoir, an extract of which was inserted in the Bulletin de Pharmacie of the month 
of February, 1809. 



* In other places these q.re written Krayn and Strehlen. 



15 . 

We shall uot dwell iipou the interesting details into which M. Boudet entered to 
elucidate for his countrymen the means of establishing similar manufactories in 
Europe. It is sufficient for our purpose here to make known the profit obtained by 
Baron de Koppy from his own works at the time of the visit of M. Boudet. 

He affirms (1) that Baron do Koppy is very well satisfied with the quantity of 
sugar, rum, spirits, and vinegar furnished by his beets, and with the ready and lucra- 
tive sale he had for these different staples ; (2) that the culture of beet roots, far from 
diminishing that of wheat, contributed to procure for him more abundant crops than 
be obtained before, first, because in employing for beets only the lauds formerly left 
to fallow, his wheat occupied the same area as before he thought of making sugar ; 
and, second, because beets furnish, besides theii sugar, a large mass of food for cattle 
and sheep. He was able, without enlarging his domain, to double the number of his 
cattle, to obtain more manure, and with the aid of this manure to obtain larger quan- 
tities of wheat. (3) He admitted that he owed to the existing war a large portion of 
the profits given him by a sugar the people were obliged to use in default of thatfrom 
canes, but he asserted that should he in times of peace obtain from his factory only 
the cost of cultivation of the beets and the manipulation of the sugar, he would guard 
himself from abandoning it so as not to renounce the prosperity it had given him and 
which it could always preserve on his domain. 

The sugar sold by Baron de Koppy was not refined. M. Boudet wished to know for 
himself if it was susceptible of being. The trial he made having succeeded, he thought 
this sugar would become that of the richer classes, at least until wo have the sugar 
from grapes M. Proust had led us.to hope for, the sirup of grapes having already re- 
placed for the poor that of the cane. 

The establishment of beet-sugar factories may therefore be undertaken with confi- 
dence throughout the empire ; but we must observe, according to the memoir of M. 
Boudet, it is especially to the large proprietors that it will be profitable, and that they 
should content themselves with making raw sugar to be sent like that of the islands 
to the refineries, one of which is able to purify and convert into loaves the products 
of twenty factories. 

"As Baron de Koppj admits iu his statements to M. Boudet, the events 
which were brought about by the political conditions of the time did 
much to favor the success of the enterprise, for shortly after his works 
were started — in fact, in the years immediately following — Napoleon I 
issued his famous decrees of Berlin and Milan, estalvlishiug the famous 
continental blockade, and excluding from the markets and consumption 
all material whatsoever of English production or manufacture, and par- 
ticularly the products of England's colonies. This, of course, made 
sugars scarce and dear, and enhanced the profits of the manufacture 
that Achard and Koppy had so op])ortuuely developed. 

'•The same conditions stimulated the search for products indigenous 
to France that might be substituted for those colonial staples which 
had become articles of daily consumption, and the deprivation of which 
was most keenly felt, and sugar seemed to have claimed instant atten- 
tion. But the source developed by Achard seems to have almost com- 
l)letely vanished from the thoughts of both scientists and practical man- 
ufacturers. The destruction of external commerce, of course, resulted 
in the downfall of the wine trade, and all eyes and all minds naturally 
turn to the utilization of tbe enormous crops of grapes France annually 
produced, and everybody seemed to look to the sugar this fruit con- 
tained, both as a substitute for the Wiinting colonial staple, and as the 



16 

rescue from the ruiu wliicb appeared imminent to tbe proprietors of the 
vineyards, especially in the south. Parmentier was, among the scientists 
and members of the Institute, the leader of this movementand the pro- 
moter of this apparent germ of a new industry and internal source of 
national wealth, and he published a work entitled, "Traite sur I'art 
de frabriqaer les sirops et conserves de raisin." The methods he indi- 
cated in this work were mainly followed in the experiments of 1808 and 
1809, but were considerably improved upon by Proust and Fouques. 
They served, however, in the various southern departments of the em- 
pire, for the production of considerable quantities of sirup from the, 
vintages of 1808 and 1809, samples of which were presented to the min- 
ister of the interior, who at once called the attention of the Emperor to 
the results represented in the samples in the following report, which 
will serve to show not only the condition of the enterprise at the close 
of 1809 and the beginning of 1810, but also what had been done previ- 
ous to that time and the appreciation with which he regarded it; and 
the decree of Napoleon issued in consequence of this report will show 
the interest he had in this possible source of a substitute for the colonial 
staple. The report appeared in the Moniteur of June 23, 1810. The 
minister, Montalivet, says : 

Sire : I have reported to your Majesty the successes obtained by M. Parmentier, who 
has given very useful attention to perfecting grape sirup and making it suitable to 
replace cane sugar in many medical and domestic preparations. Yonr Majesty, who 
ordered it to be used in the palace, seemed satisfied with it. I desire to-day to fix 
your attention upon more important results. M. Proust, an able chemist, has extracted 
from grape sirup a concrete sugar. M. Fouques has found a means of bleaching it and 
giving it not ouly'tho brilliancy but also the consistency and color of cane sugar. I 
have called together a commission, composed of Messrs. Berthollet and Chaptal, Sena- 
tors, and members of the Institute, Parmentier, Vauqueliu, and Proust. The sugar of 
M. Fouques was submitted to them for examination. The commission decided that this 
substance was worthy of the highest degree of attention, andafter having made some 
tests upon the substauce itself, without any preparation, thought it especially essen- 
tial to determine what would be its effects in diftereut mixtures and different propor- 
tions. The commission then adjourned, and came together again at the ministry on 
the 12th of this month. 

Tne commission found that conserves containing the triple and quadruple of grape 
sugar were too sweet. Those containing the double were less sweet than those con- 
taining a single proportion of cane sugar. That the grape sugar equivalent of cane 
was a little over 2J to 1. 

Montalivet. 

"In consequence of this report of the minister of the interior, IJis 
Majesty issued, under date of June 18, 1810, the following decree: 

Article 1. There is accorded the sum of 100,000 francs ($20,000) toM. Proust,* and 
one of 40,000 francs ($8,000) to Sieur Fouques, in the form of gratuity and by way of 
encouragement for the discovery they have made of grape sugar. 

Art. 2. They shall be obliged to u.se these two sums to establish grn]iesugar fac- 
tories in that portion of our southern departments designated by our minister of the 
interior. <• . 



" By decree of Jnuo 21, 1810, Napoleon appointed M. Proust, cberalsfc, member of tbo 
Legion of Honor. 



ir 

Art. 3. They shall bo obliged to give up the secret of their processes, which shall be 
rendered public, and be sent to all the prefects of our grapegrowiu;? departments. 

Art. 4. From January 1, 1811, at the latest, the sugar of grapes shall replace in all 
public establishments the sugar of canes. 

Art. 5. Our minister of the interior shall recommend to the prefects to ijropagate 
and encourage the establishment of factories for either grape sirup or concrete grape 
sugar, so that in the comingyear the inestimable advantages of this precious discovery 
shall make itself felt for the good of all our people and the interests of our commerce. 

" The same commission to whom was submitted for examination the 
samples of sirup and sugar produced by Messrs. Proust and Fouques 
were directed by the minister of the interior to prepare detailed instruc- 
tions upon the methods to be followed for the successful and profitable 
extraction of sirup and concrete sugar from grapes, and the result of 
the work they at once entered upon, a copy of which may be found in 
the Moniteur of August 25, 1810, was printed and distributed through- 
out the grape-growing departments of France, in company with the fol- 
lowing circular letter to the prefects of those departments, under date 
of August 18,1810: 

Monsieur le pref^t : His Majesty the Emperor desires to give an impulse to the 
manufacture of sugar and sirup from grapes, and he has ordered that there be pre- 
pared to this effect simple instructions indicating the best processes to follow. Ho 
wishes that the instructions prepared by the most celebrated savants, and generally 
distributed, may lead proprietors to make sirup and sugar for their own uses, and 
place manufacturers in the way of making it in the surest and most economical man" 
ner, and completely supplying the markets with products from the next vintage, 

I send you several copies of these instructions. Be so good as to distribute them 
to your officers who will make the best use of them, and cause them to be printed in 
the journal of your department. 

You must not content yourself with causing the description of the process of man- 
ufacture of sugar and sirup from grapes to be distributed to even the smallest com- 
uuines; you shall stimulate the zeal of your officers ; you sliall promise and accord 
prizes to those who shall have made the most of sugar and sirup of the best quality. 
I will supply, upon your requisition, the funds you may dispose of. 

I also invite you to immediately confer with directors of hospitals and other chari- 
table establishments of your department, that they in turn may confer with farmers, 
proprietors, and pharmaeist who may desire t) make sirups and sugars, and arrange 
with these persons such markets as will assure the sale of the products of this j^ear. 
You shall preside over these arrangements, and take care that, without injuring the 
interests of the poor, there may be all-sufficient encouragement for manufacturers. 

You shall address to me a table of the quantities of sugars and ordinary sirups an- 
nually consumed in each hospital, and of the presumed consumption of the coming 
year in sirups and sugars of grapes, with indications of the markets which have been 
recorded. 

The subprefects and mayors will, I hope, second you in all your efforts. You shall 
make known to me those functionaries and special persons who shall be most dis- 
tinguished in this sphere of usefulness which is open to them. I shall report their 
efforts and their success, as well as your own, to the Emperor. 

Let manufacturing establishments multiply everywhere. Let it be considered, M. le 
Pr6fet, that this is a sort of war we are making against the enemies of the Continent, 
and which his Majesty considers, more than any other sovereign, worthy of recompense 
to those who make themselves prominent in the ranks. 

Count MONTALIVET, 

Minister of the Interior. 

25474— Bull. 27 2 



18 

"Immediately after this the Emperor issued the following decree, 
ddate August 22, 1810: 

Consideriuj? that the ecouomical manufacture of sugar from grapes essentiallj^ iu- 
llueuces the prosperity of agriculture and commerce, and desiring to give to this im- 
portant branch of the industry a particular uiark of our special protection, we have 
decreed and do decree as follows : 

Article 1. On June 1, 1811, the sum of 200,000 fraucs ($40,000) shall be distributed 
among twelve establishments which shall have made the largest quantity of sugar 
from grapes. 

Art. 2. The distribution shall be made among the twelve establishments propor- 
tionally to the quantity of sugar that each one shall have made. 

Art. 3. To secure the riglit of competition it shall be necessai'y to have made at 
least 10,000 kilograms (22,000 pounds) of sugar. 

Art. 4. The quantities of sugar made shall be verified by a commissioner appointed 
for that purpose by the prefect of the department and certified to by the mayor of the 
place. 

Art. 5. The prefect shall address these evidences to our minister of the interior be- 
fore May 1, 1811. He shall also send at the same time a sample of the sugar made. 

Art. 6. Our minister of the interior shall make to us a report to this effect. He 
shall make known to us at the same time the manufacturers who have perfected the 
processes of manufacture and shall propose to us the recompeuses and encouragements 
they shall have merited. 

"But while these encouragements were being given to the enterprise 
of producing sirup and sugar from grapes in the south to replace the 
colonial staple in the home consumption of France, the results of Achard's 
later work, as described in his letter to the editor of the Moniteur in 1808, 
had awakened anew the interest in the beet root as a source of sugar in 
the north, and M. Deyeux, reporter of the first committee of the Institute, 
which conducted the experiments of 1800, in compliance with a request 
made through the Institute by the minister of the interior, again under- 
took to repeat in 1809 and 1810 the experiments of the former com- 
mittee, and the later work of Achard, with such modifications as he 
deemed advisable and practicable. In this work he was associated with 
Mr. Barruel, chief of the chemical department of the School of Medicine 
of Paris, and their labors were rewarded by the i)roduction of a certain 
quantity of muscovado, which they refined and thus secured ' two loaves 
of sugar, perfectly crystallized, of great whiteness, brilliant and sono- 
rous, in a word enjoying all the properties of the finest cane sugar,' one 
of which was presented by the minister of the interior to the Emperor, 
who is said to have ' received it with that benevolence which he accords 
to every useful object.' But these experiments, while they showed the 
practicability of extracting sugar from the beet root by the means pro- 
posed, were still not of a character to show the net cost of producing 
the sugar, because the experiments viewed the work only in a chemical 
sense. Messrs. Barruel and Isnard then undertook to determine this 
part of the question, and repeated these experiments just mentioned, 
keeping strict accounts of the cost of each stage of the processes applied 
and the quantities of the products obtained. It was found that by their 
processes they were jible to extract 1.5 per cent, of musQOvado, whicb 



19 

cost 30 ceuts per pound. The leliued sugar produced from this lower 
grade cost 40 ceuts per pound. It appears, however, that the beets 
treated, which were grown upon the highly manured hinds of the plain 
of Vertus where their works were located, were very unfavorable to the 
results of the experiments. It also appears that these figures represent 
the actual cost to the experimenters in the extraction of the sugar, tak- 
ing no account of the by-products and assigning the maximum price 
for the beets worked ; but the further estimates of cost made up by 
Messrs. Barruel and Isnard, based upon their own experiments and work- 
ing by their own processes, supposing the vahie of the beets to be the 
actual cost of producing them and the amount of roots handled to be 
the yield of about 400 acres of land, about 6,000 tons, show that the 
cost of production should not exceed 8 cents per pound for good mus- 
covado, or 12.9 cents per pound of refined sugar. 

"The actual condition of the sugar enterprise in France at the close of 
1810 may be gleaned from the following report to the Emi)eror by 
Moutalivet, under date of January 10, 1811. 

The prodnctiou of sirup aud sugar from grapes ordered by your Majesty is pursued 
with activity ; and eveu though the season has not been very favorable to the vine, I 
am in daily receipt of proofs of the zeal with which a large number of proprietors are 
animated in the different departments, but those of the south aud the center are the 
only ones who may engage in this manufacture, and on this account I would respect- 
fully submit to your Majesty the results which lead ns to hope that even the depart- 
li^euts of the north may find upon their territory a sugar of very good quality. We 
know that for some years back beet-root sugar has been manufactured at Berlin and 
Breslau. Messrs. Achard and Koppy addressed to my predecessor very beautiful speci- 
mens of this sugar, but up to the present but slight results have been obtained. M. 
Deyeux, first pharmacist to your Majesty aud member of the Institute, has just re- 
undertaken this w.ork and has obtained very remarkable success in the results which 
he has addressed to me, and which I submit to your Majesty. He has also addressed 
to me an interesting memoir in which he has reported to the Institute the processes he 
employed to arrive at his results. He believes these processes to be more simple and 
better than those adopted by Messrs. Achard and Koppy. But M. Deyeux, obliged to 
devote himself to trials and experiments to find a good method, is unable as yet to 
establish the price at which this sugar can be produced. Everything shows, however, 
that this price will be sufficiently low to prove a large source of profit to extended 
manufacture. Already, in the department of the Doubs, a rich proprietor, Mous. 
Secci, has established a manufacture of this kind aud has sown 80 acres in beets, 
which have yielded him 500,000 kilograms (;')00 tons) of roots, from which 25 to 30 
milliers (27,500 to 33,000 pounds) of refined sugar may be expected. The prelect of 
Mont Tonuferehas also iuformed me that Mous. Molar, a proprietor in his department 
has sown 80 hectares (197.6 acres) of ground in beets which he proposed to convert 
into sugar, and for which operation he asks to be admitted to the prizes which your 
Majesty has deigned to promise to manufacturers of sirup and sugar from grapes. In 
the department of Eoer, the manufacturer of sugar from beet roots is carried on by 
the brothers Herbem at Urduiger. The prefect of the Rhine and Moselle has trans" 
nutted to me samples of a very fine cassonade from beetroots, manufactured by 
Mens. Anthouin, who asks for encouragement to enable him to enter upon this man- 
ufacture on a large scale. Finally, for Holland, the prince governor-geueral has sent 
me a sample of beet-root sugar made by M. Linden at Hemmer, in whose labors he 
appears to have confidence ; aud the prefect of the Bouches-du-Rhone has shown iuq 
eampleg of beet-root sugar made by M, Vaurroggen, one of his officers. 



20 

I shall, at a later date, report to your Miijcsty the results which these different at- 
tempts promise. At this time, I confiue myself to presenting the sugar made by M. 
Deyeux. It in no way difi'ers from the refined sugar of the colonies. This test shows 
what may be expected from this work as regards the quality of the material. I shall 
now study carefully the means of determining to what extent this manufacture may 
become economical and the measures to be taken to render it general in the depart- 
ments of the north, 

MONTALIVET, 

Minister of the Interior. 

" It is to be remarked further that prizes were also ottered by the So- 
ciete d'Eucouragemetit pour I'Industrie Natiouale for the production of 
sugar from grapes or beets, the annual prize being 2,400 francs ($480) 
for the best essay and sample, 1,000 francs ($200) for second best, and, 
on February 20, 1811, it received, through its founder and then j)resident, 
Count Chaptal, a memoir upon the methods for the extraction of sugar 
from beets, by M. Drappiez, a pharmacist at Lille, together with a loaf 
of the sugar, of which he had been able to obtain 50 quintals by the 
method he described. The committee on chemical arts of the society 
compared the sample submitted by M. Drappiez with a sample of refined 
cane sugar they were then able to obtain at a cost of 95 cents per En- 
glish pound, and failed to detect the ^^ slightest differenced^ between, 
them. M. Drappiez obtained by his method a yield of 1.3 percent., the 
cost of which he estimated at 80 cents per pound. 

" Shortly after this there appeared in the Moniteur of March 23, 1811, 
a statement to the eSect — 

That there had been presented to his Majesty several quintals of refined crystallized 
beet- root sugar, having all the qualities of that of the cane; loaves of both kinds 
have been juixed together, and it was impossible to distinguish between them. It 
follows from the report of a commission charged with the examination of the differ- 
ent means proposed to replace by indigenous processes the foreign productions so 
costly to France, that 70,000 acres cultivated in beet roots would furnish the 30,000,000 
of pounds necessary to our consumption. 

''And two days later Napoleon issued the first decree, in which he pro- 
vided for direct encouragement of the beet-sugar industry, and which 
was as follows: 

Palace of the Tuilleries, March 25, 1811. 
Napoleon, Emperor of the French, etc. : 

Upon a report of a commission appointed to examine the means proposed to nat- 
uralize, upon the continent of our empire, sugar, indigo, cotton, and divers other pro- 
ductions of the two Indies: 

Upon presentation made tons of a considerable quantity of beet-root sugar, refined, 
crystallized, and possessing all the (jualities and properties of cane sugar : 

Upon the presentation made to us at the council of commerce of a great quantity of 
indigo, extracted from the plant woad, which our departments of the south produce 
in abundance, and which indigo has all the properties of the indigo of the two 
Indies: 

Having reason to expect that by means of these two precious discoveries our empire 
will shortly be relieved from an exportation of 100,000,000 francs ($20,000,000) hith- 
erto necessary for supplying the consumption of sugar and indigo : 

We have decreed and do decree as follows : 



21 

Article 1. Plantations of beet root proper for the manufacture of sugar shall be 
formed in our empire to the extent of 32,000 hectares (79,040 acres). 

Art. 2. Our minister of the interior shall distribute 32,000 hectares among the de- 
partments of our empire, taking into consideration those departments where the cult- 
ure of tobacco may be established, and those which from the nature of the soil may 
be more favorable to the culture of the. beet root. 

Art. 3. Our prefects »hall take measures that the number of hectares allotted to 
their respective departments shall be in full cultivation this year, or next year at the 
latest. 

Art. 4. A certain number of hectares shall be laid out in our empire in plantations 
of woad proper to the manufacture of indigo in the proportion necessary for our man- 
ufacture. 

Art. 5. Our minister of the interior shall distribute the s3,id number among the de- 
partments of our empire, taking into particular consideration the departments be- 
yond the Alps and those of the south, where this branch of industry formerly made 
great progress. 

Art. 6. Our prefects shall take measures that the number of hectares allotted to 
their departments shall be in full cultivation next year at the latest. 

Art. 7. The commission shall, before the 4th of May, fix upon the most convenient 
places for the establishment of six experimental schools for giving instruction in the 
manufacture of beet-root sugar conformably to the processes of chemists. 

Art. 8. The commission shall also, before the same date, fix upon the places most 
convenient for the establishment of four experimental schools for giving instruction 
upon the extraction of indigo from the lees of woad according to the processes ap- 
proved by the commission. 

Art. 9. Our minister of the interior shall make kno wn to the prefects in what places 
these schools shall be formed, and to which pupils destined to this manufacture 
should be sent. Proprietors and farmers who may wish to atteud a course of lectures 
in the said experimental schools shall be aduutted thereto. 

Art. 10. Messrs. Barruel and Isnard, who have brought to perfection the processes 
for extracting sugar from the beet root, shall be specially charged with the direction 
of two of the six experimental schools. 

Art. 11. Our minister of the interior shall, in consequence, cause to be paid the 
sum necessary for the formation of the said establishments, which sum shall be 
charged to the fund of 1,000,000 francs ($200,000) in the budget of 1811 at the disposal 
of the said minister for the encouragement of beet-root sugar and woad indigo. 

Art. 12. From the 1st of January, 1813, and upon a report to be made to our min- 
ister of the interior, the sugar and indigo of the two Indies shall be iirohibited, and 
considered as merchandise of English manufacture or proceeding from English com- 
merce. 

Art. 13. Our minister of the interior is charged with the execution of the present 
decree. 

"Early in the following April, ISll, Decostils, reporter of the commit- 
tee on cliemiciil arts of the Societe d'Encouragemeut pour Pludustrie 
Rationale, reported upon a memoir and results presented by M. De- 
rosne. He was the first to suggest the use of quicklime in the purifica- 
tion of the juice. His method was based upon three principal points : 
(1) The use of caustic lime ; (2) the use of alum ; and (3) the use of alco- 
hol. The lime he adds to the fresh juice, of which he succeeded in. ex- 
pressing 63 per cent, the weight of the root. The proportion add^d was 
0.24 gram per liter of juice. After the addition of lime in a thick milk 
the juice was rapidly brought to boiling and the scums removed as 
they formed. The juice was then separated from the sediment, which 



22 

settled and concentrated. It was then purified with alum and blood, 
and further treated in the usual way. The i)roportion of su.uar ex- 
tracted by this method is stated to have been 4i per cent., and wais the 
highest result that had yet been attained. The beets from which this 
hijijh yield was obtained were of the white Swedish variety, while the 
beets of the plain of Aubervillier did not yield as jimch by 2i per cent. 
"After the announcement of this method of Derosue it appears that 
little was published on the subject of the new industry, that was now 
beginning to assume important dimensions, until the beginning of the 
following year, when Montalivet reported to His Majesty that (>,785 hec- 
tares (1G,758 acres) htid been sown in beets in dilterent departments of 
the empire, producing 98,813 tons of roots. 

" The number of factories established was thirty-nine or forty, and the 
minister estimated tiiat if the whole product were worked up the result 
would be 1,500,000 kilograms (3,300,000 pounds) of sugar; but the plan- 
tations were in many cases too far removed from tlie factories to make 
it possible to transport the roots with profit. He also gave a table show- 
ing the number of hectares sown in beets in each department,the quan- 
tity of roots harvested, and tlie reasons which prevented more exten- 
sive planting in each. The latter seemed to be principally lack of suf- 
ficient seed and lateness of the season. 

"About the same time a report was made to the Emperor by Count 
Chaptal showing the cost, by the methods then known and in use, of 
the culture of the beet and the manufacture of sugar. The first he 
estimates at 176 francs per metrical arpent (about $35 per acre), the 
yield of which varies from 12,000 to 45,000 to 50,000 pounds. The 
second cost he estimated at 15 cents per pound, supposing all the mo- 
lasses to be sold ; but if no molasses be sold then he estimates that the 
cost would reach 30 cents per pound. For the cost of refined sugar he 
makes two estimates; the first supposing 15 cents per pound as the 
value of the raw sugar, and in the second he values it at 30 cents. Ac- 
cording to the first sup])osition the cost would be 32 cents per pound, 
and 45i cents according to the second supposition. 

" In concluding his report, Chaptal says an intimate knowledge of 
chemistry is necessary for successful work ; and he recommends, as a 
means for assuring the prompt prosperity of this enterprise, that there 
be established at one of the factories already established a normal 
school, and that there be brought together there thirty or forty joung 
men already versed in chemical knowledge, and forty others taken 
from among the children of refiners of Orleans, Antwerp, Ghent, Mar- 
seilles, Nantes, Amsterdam, etc., and from among the chiefs of refiner- 
ies in the larger towns; and the establishment at which, it seemed to 
him, such instruction as he referred to could be given was that of M. 
Barruel.in the plain of Vertus. 

" On the 12th of January, 1812, M. Barruel published a note upon the 
manufacture of beetroot sugar, and describes the method he had finally 



23 

devised for extractinj*' the siiijar, ami in this description we find the 
first mention of the nse of carbonic acid for separating the excess of 
lime remaining after pnrification of the juice. He proceeds as follows : 
The jnice is heated to Go° 11.; milk of lime is then added (295 grams 
quicklime per 100 kilograms of juice, or 295 parts in 100,000) ; the whole 
stirred thoroughly and heated to 80° E. The coloring matter, etc., 
forms in soluble compounds and makes a flocculent precipitate. A solid 
scum forms on the top. The latter is skimmed ofi' and the liquid de- 
canted. The clear juice is then freed from lime, and for this purpose an 
acid which forms an insoluble compound with the lime is the best, sul- 
phuric or carbonic acids preferred. Alum may "be used according to 
Derosne's method, but this only acts by the sulphuric acid it contains, 
and while for equal weights sulphuric acid costs more than alum, it will 
neutralize more of lime. 

"M. Barruel considers, however, that carbonic acid is the most eco- 
nomical of all, and for his purpose he prepares it by passing air through 
burning coals. 

"In the conclusion of his note he says : ' This process, which is very 
simple and not costly, always succeeds. 1 guaranty its exactness and 
success.' 

"Maumenc states that about this time Napoleon visited a factory at 
Passy, where Benjamin Delessert had succeeded in producing white 
sugar from beets, and after having given him the cross of the Legion of 
Honor (the same which ornamented his own breast) as a recompense for 
this splendid initiative, the Emperor caused to be inserted in the Moni- 
teurof the follbwing day the grand evolution that had been consum- 
mated in French commerce. But of this circumstance we are unable 
to find any record in the Moniteur or the Journal de I'Empire of that 
period. 

"On January 15, 1812, Napoleon issued the following decree, in all 
probability a result of the report made by Count Chaptal : 

Section I.— School for manufacture of Beet-Eoot Sugar. 

Article 1. The factory of Messrs. Bamicl and Chappelcfc, plain of Vertns, and those 
established at Wachenheim, department of Mont-Tonnfere, at Donai, Strasbonrg, and 
at Casteluaudary, are established as special schools for the manufacture of beet-root 
sugar. 

Art. 2. One hundred students shall be attached to these schools, viz : Forty at that 
of Messrs. Barruel and Chai)pelet, and fifteen at each of those at Wachenheim, Douai, 
Strasbourg, and Casteluaudary ; total, one hundred. 

Art. 3. These students shall bo selected from among students in medicine, phar- 
macy, and chemistry. 

Section II.— Culture of Beets. 

Art. 4. Our minister of the interior shall take measures to cause to be sown through- 
out our empire 100,000 metrical arpents of beets. The conditions of the distribution of 
tho culture shall be printed and sent t(» the prefects previone to February 15. 



24 

Section III. — Manufacture. 

AliT. 5. There shall be accorded throughout our entire empire five hundred liceuses 
for the luauufacture of beet-root sugar. 

Art. (5. These liceuses shall be accorded of preference — 

To all proprietors of factories or refiueries. 

To all who have manufactured sugar duriug 1811. 

To all who have made preparations and expenditures for the establishment of fac- 
tories for work iu 1812. 

Art. 7. Of these liceuses there shall be accorded of right, one to each department. 

Art. 8. Prefects shall write to all proprietors of refineries, iu order that they may 
make their submissions for the establishruent of the said factories at the close of 1812. 
In default on the part of proprietors of refiueries to have made their submissions prior 
to March 15, or at the latest April 15, they shall be considered as having renounced 
the preference accorded them. 

Art. 9. Liceuses shall include an obligation on the part of those who shall obtain 
them to establish a factory capable of producing at least 10,000 kilograms (22,000 
pounds) of raw sugar in 1812-'13. 

Art. 10. Each individual who, having received a license, shall have actiially manu- 
factured nearly 10,000 kilograms of raw sugar resulting from the crop of 1812 to 1813 
shall have the privilege and assurance, by way of encouragemeutj of being subject to 
no tax, or octroi, npon the product of his manufacture for the space of four years. 

Art. 11. Each individual who shall perfect the manufacture of sugar in such a 
manner as to obtain a larger quantity from the beet, or who shall invent a more 
simple and economical method of manufacture, shall obtain a license for a longer 
time, with the assurance that no duty nor octroi shall be placed upon the product of 
his manufacture during the continuance of his license. 

Section IV.— Creation of four Imperial Factories. 

Art. 12. Four imperial beet-sugar factories shall be established iu 1812 under the 
care or our minister of the interior 

Art. 13. These factories shall be so ari'anged as to produce with the crop of 1812 to 
1813, 2,000,000 kilograms of raw sugar. 

" We find one of the practical i^esults of this generous decree in the 
announcement made by Cbarpentier freres of Valenciennes, Departe- 
meut du Nord (Journal de I'Einpire, of December 2, 1812), that they had 
for sale 12,000" kilograms (20,400 pounds) of beet-root sugar manufact- 
ured from the crop of that year, and during the first two months of 
work. The large quantity of beets they still had in store assured them, 
it was stated, for the end of April, 1813, a product of 60,000 kilograms 
(132,000 pounds), which they offered to sell as it should be made. 

" But these results are more fully described by the minister of the 
interior, in his report upon the situation of the empire in the beginning 
of 1813, in which, under the head of new industries, he says: 

To replace in our consumption the sugar, indigo, and cochineal of the colonies; to 
flud in the south of Europe and at home the cottons and soda to supply our manu- 
factures seemed impossible. It was ardently wished for, and the impossibility disap- 
I>eared before our efforts. 

During this year the manufacture of sugar which is extracted from the beet root 
will give us 7,700,000 pounds of this staple. It is prepared in three hundred and 
thirty-four factories, all of which are iu nctual activity. 

After numerous trials, processes are finally employed by which beet-root sugar will 
not cost more than 15 cents per pound to the manufacturer. Mr. Bonmatin, in-. 



25 

ventor of this uew method, profited by the useful labors of his predecessors, and the 
goverument, iu order to hasteu the fortunate results of his discovery, charged him to 
proceed to propagate it iu those sections iu which the principal manufactories are 
established. 

Since the establishmeut of the high price of sugar, cousuuiptiou has greatly de- 
creased, and the 7,000,000 pounds manufactured at this time may be considered equal 
to at least one-half our actual needs. This diuiiuution is not the result of any abso- 
lute privation that may have occurred, but from the equivalents by which sugar has 
come to be replaced. 

Several millions of pounds of sirnps from grapes and honey, the latter better puri- 
fied and more abundant, have been substituted for sugar in a great portion of the do- 
mestic uses with so .uuch of ease that the most delicate taste could scarcely perceive 
the change. 

When the difficulty of procuring sugar and its cost shall be less; when the first 
profits, at present so great, if they be considered only as interest upon capital, shall 
have covered the cost of establishing, the quantity that will be consumed will again 
increase, the equilibrium will be renewed, aud supposing that one-fifth the consump- 
tion to remain definitely replaced by sirup of grapes and honey, France will consume 
40,000,000 pounds of beet-root sugar, the value of which will be 30,000,000 francs, and 
we may count upou these results for 1814. "Our refineries now yield a product of 
10,000,000 pounds, which will increase to at least 20,000,000 pounds. 

In the six years begiuning with 1802, we received from abroad an annual average of 
52,000,000 pounds of sugar. During the four years beginning with 1809, the average 
annual importation has been but 10,000,000 to 11,000,000 pounds. It is especially 
since that time that nothing has been neglected to naturalize this staple at home, and 
the conquest is fiuallj' assured. 

" But while all this interest and busy enterprise was being manifested 
iu France, great progress was also being made iu Germany. And the 
generous aud worthy action of Napoleon in extending substantial en- 
couragement to the development of the growing industry which pro- 
duced such happy results had even been anticipated by the German 
Government, which came to the aid of Achard, who had for nearly fifteen 
years devoted all his time and limited means to the development and 
establishment of the industry, in the ultimate success of which, in spite 
of all the reverses to which he had been subject, he had never lost faith. 
His influence aud example had led to the establishment of the works of 
Baron de Koppy at Krayn, and his watchful care over it had assured its 
financial success. Aud this besides those already mentioned was fol- 
lowed by the establishment of works in other sections, notably by Baron 
von Lorentz, Counselor Meugen, and more especially the Messrs. Mayeri 
of Breslau, who, we are told by Isnard, director of the special school of 
chemistry for beet-sugar manufacture at Strasburg, had for ten years 
sown about 750 acres in beets. In view of the progress attained and 
the interest manifested, the governmental authorities accorded to 
Achard, during the course of 1810 and 1812, the encouragement and 
aid indicated in the following notice sent by Achard to the Moniteur, 
and published in that journal, June 23, 1812, showing also the progress 
this pioneer in the industry had made. He says: 

The public has, during the past year, been informed, as much by the decrees of the 
regency of Silesia as by the several writings I have published, that His Majesty, the 



26 

King of Prussia, lias orderetl mo to establish on my t^o estates of Upper and Lower 
Cnnern, near Wolilen, in Lower Silesia, a practical school for instruction as complete 
as possible, to make known to our people as well as to foreigners the processes em- 
ployed in the extraction of sugar from beet roots. 

"He further states that he had three distinct methods for extraction, 
usiugneither lime, carbonate of lime, milk, sulphuric acid, nor alum, 
except for beet of poor quality, or toward spring when vegetation has 
commenced. By the new method he succeeded in getting concrete 
sugar iu twenty-four hours. The three methods of separating the sugar 
from sirups of beet juices are: (1) by regular crystallization; (2) by 
granulation ; (3) by immediate conversion into bastard sugar. By the 
first method 1 quintal of juice gives 5 Silesian j)ounds of sugar. By the 
second 6 pounds are obtained, and by the third method, which is prefer- 
able to all others, the sugar may be extracted in twenty-four hours, 
yieldmg 5 pounds of raw sugar. 

"This notice of Achard is followed by one from the Royal Eegency 
of Silesia, upon the establishments of Achard, stating that — 

His Majesty the King of Prussia, iu giving to M. Achard a. considerable sum of 
money, prescribed that he should establish and maintain iipon his estate, and at his 
own cost, a factory for instruction in the manufacture of sugar from beets. 

In the mouth of December of last year (1811), Achard having announced to the 
Royal Regency that he had established two factories — one factory on a small scale 
and such as could be united with farm management, the other to manufacture sugar 
on a large scale; that the building for lodging students was finished and ready to re- 
ceive them ; that the course of instruction would commence in January ; and that he 
would be flattered to see an official examination of his w^ork — we consequently ap- 
pointed for this purpose two intelligent persons, who found that the buildings in- 
tended for the manufacture were actually completed, and provided with the apparatus 
and machinery necessary. It also appears from this report that since January 12 
(1812) the manufactory has been in full activity, and that besides the students there 
were employed in the factory a foreman, nine male, and four female laborers. During 
the course of instruction 20 qirintals are worked upon daily. Five pounds of raw sugar 
per quintal [110 pounds J are extracted, aud, according to exact cal&ulatiousmado at 
the factory, it follows that 100 quintals of beets give a net profit of something more 
than 111 thalers current money. 

"This model factory and school of Achard attracted students from 
nearly all the nations of the continent, and it is probable that it was the 
students he had from Eussia who carried back to their country the germs 
of this industry, which has now become so powerful there, and which in 
that country received its establishing impulse through the aid and en- 
couragement extended by the imperial authority ; for it is related that 
General Blankenagel, who founded a factory in the government of Toula, 
at the village of Akabef, had received from the Czar of Russia a gift of 
50,000 roubles ($38,805), and that an ukase or edict of the emperor gave 
the assurance that all lands of those establishing sugar factories should 
be free from tax. 

"Such, then, was the progress attained in this new and valuable in- 
dustry, and its condition in the begiiuiiug of 1814, during which memor- 
able year what had bid lair to be a great source of national wealth and 



27- 

prosperity to all the contiuental nations received almost its death-blow. 
The begiuuiug of the war witli Eussia interfered with its progress in 
that country. The destructive passage of foreign and contending armies 
destroyed completely not only this, but other and more flourishing in- 
dustries in Germany, and the final conflict on French territory and the 
downfall of Napoleon, who has been described as the second father of 
the industry, resulted in its almost complete extinction in France, and 
the withdrawal on the part of the immediate successor of the great Em- 
peror of the encouragement he had accorded was nearly as disastrous 
as had been the malicious depredations which were perpetrated by the 
enemy's troops, and it required the patient labor of more than another 
decade to accomplish what Napoleon had been able to establish in about 
one-third that time. 

" But it must not be supposed that this new enterprise, which had as- 
sumed such formidable proportions, was during its development favored 
with a constant belief of the entire people of all nations in its valueand 
its eiBcacy to supply a substitute for the staple of the tropical climes, 
which had formed the basis of much of the maritime commerce of the 
time. If Achard received ridicule at home and was looked ui^on by 
many of his countrymen as an insane enthusiast, but which prejudice 
by presentation of substantial evidences he was able to dissipate, the 
criticisms heaped upon Napoleon were of the bitterest character abroad, 
and the mutterings which could not under imperial rules enjoy unre- 
strained expression were not unknown to him, nor did they in any way 
affect the firmness of his resolution or his charity toward his critics at 
home, as is shown in the following address he made to the chamber of 
commerce March 11, 1811, in which he says : 

The Berlin and Milan decrees are the fundamental laws of ray empire as regards 
neutral commerce. I consider the flag an extension of territory, and the nation which 
suffers it to be violated shall not be considered neutral. 

The fate of American commerce shall soon be decided. I will favor it if the United 
States will conform to these decrees ; on the contrary, their ships will be excluded 
from my empire. 

Commercial relations with England must cease. I proclaim it to you, gentlemen, 
distinctly. Merchants who have transactions there to settle or funds to withdraw 
should do it as quickly as possible. I gave this advice some time ago to the mer- 
chants of Antwerp, a.nd they have profited by it. 

I wish for peace, but not a patched -up one. I wish for it sincerely, and for such an 
onens will afford me sufficient guaranties, for I have not lost sight of Amiens or St. 
Domingo, or the losses which commerce sustained from the last declaration of war. 

I have a knowledge of what is passing in the counting-houses of merchants. I know 
they denounce in high terms my measures and say I am badly advised. I will not 
blame them for their impressions, because, not having a view of the whole ground, 
they have not an opportunity to calculate and judge as I do. Nevertheless, those who 
have lateljr arrived from England will inform you of the injurious cousequeuces pro 
duced in that country from an interruption of their commerce with the Continent, and 
may say it is possible I am right and that my designs may be accomplished. 



28 

I am informed that from late experimouts France will be enabled to do without the 
sugars and indigoes of the two Indies. Chemistry has made such progress in this 
country, that it will possibly produce as great a change in our commercial relations 
as that produced by the discoscry of the compass. I do not say, gentlemen, that I 
do not wish for maritime commerce or colonies, but it is proper to abandon them for 
the present, and until England shall return to just and reasonable principles, or until 
I can dictate to her terms of peace. 

* * # * w * * 

I know the English have better admirals, and that is a great advantage, but by often 
fighting them we shall learn to conquer. 

The vent of colonial produce upon the Continent being once firmly shut, the En- 
glish will be obliged to throw into the Thames the sugars and indigoes for which they 
have exchanged objects of their industry, and which have afforded them such resources. 

"It is stated tiiat about tbis time a caricature "was exhibited in Paris 
iu which the Kinperor and the King of Eome were the most prominent 
characters. The Emperor was represented as sitting in the nursery with 
a cup of coffee before him, into which he was squeezing a beet-root. 
Near him was seated the King of Kome voraciously sucking the beet- 
root, while the nurse, standing near and steadfastly observing, is made 
to say to the youthful monarch, ^^Suclc, dear, suclc ; your father says it is 
sugar ! " 

"But as the doubt and ridicule here indicated gave way to a large 
extent in France before the development of the industry, that expressed 
in the English journals also gave place to an undercurrent of anxious 
inquiry as to the possible fate of the English colonial commerce, and the 
probable extent of the development of the new industries that Avere 
being so ardently fostered by Napoleon ; and it is related by the Prince 
Louis Napoleon that the English Government even made anonymous 
offers to Achard, first of the sum of $40,000, and later on of $100,000, 
if he would publish a work declaring that he had been carried away by 
his enthusiasm iu his former publications, and that the results he then 
made public had by no means been confirmed by his later work. Fail- 
ing in effecting in this way the result desired, it is said the Government 
induced Sir Humi^hrey Davy to write a brochure, in which he declared 
that, while sugar could be produced from the beet, the product was too 
bitter for consumption. 

''But the impotency of these attacks upon the new industry is fully 
illustrated in its subsequent history. Napoleon, in his wisdom, contin- 
ued his substantial encouragement of this and other agricultural and 
manufacturing industries in France by the appropriation of several mill- 
ions of francs in their supjiort at a time when the total revenue of his 
empire did not exceed 999,000,000 of francs (less than $200,000,000) and 
be was maintaining large armies in Spain and Portugal, and a very 
formidable navy on the high seas. 

" But if the industry Napoleon had fostered and established fell with 
his downfall, its value had been demonstrated, and was even admitted 
in the first report of the Abbe de INIontesquieu, minister of the interior 



29 

uuder Louis XVIII, a report filled witli the bitterest criticisms of tbe 
policy of the Imperial Government, accasing it of tyranny and impo- 
sition upon tbe rights of the people as concerns the manufacturing 
interests. In the course of this report the minister remarked that — 

Mechaaics and cliemistry, enriclied by a crowd of discoveries and ably applied to 
the arts, had caused rapid progress. The continental system, by forcing manufact- 
urers to seek upon our own territory hitherto unknown resurces, brought about some 
useful results. 

" The condition in which the wars left France and her industries at 
the beginning of 1815 necessitated the production of the revenue for the 
support of the government from external sources, for her fields and 
factories could not then bear a tax sufficient for the purpose. The cus- 
toms duty this required maintained the prices of colonial staples at rates 
even higher than those which prevailed during the preceding reign, and 
operated as a substitute for the encouragement before given by the Gov- 
ernment. It was on this account that the one factory, that of M. Cres- 
pel, at Arras, in the department of the North, which had survived the 
general wreck, was able in a year or two to yield to its enterprising 
owner and director a fair income with which to retrieve his broken for- 
tune, and to again extend the industry in which it was shown he had 
such a deep interest. With the profits attained by one factory he estab- 
lished another until he finally became the proprietor of ten of the finest 
works of his time. His intelligence, industry, and enterprise gave an 
impetus to the culture and manufacture of the crop, and his example 
was soon followed by others in different parts of the country, and fac- 
tories were established and worked with varying success. In 1823, 
Dubrunfaut published, in his work on the manufacture, information 
concerning the condition of the industry at that time, that he had been 
able to obtain on a tour among the principal factories of the day. From 
this work we gather the facts and figures tabulated below concerning 
the cost of culture of the beet and of the manufacture of sugar by some 
of the most progressive and successful manufacturers he had occasion 
to visit. 



Name of grower. 



Matliieu de Doinbasle 

Count Chaptal 

Crespel 

Carter 

Duke of Ragusa 

General Preval 

Masaon 

Audre 

GrevetP616 

Demars 

Average 



Yield per 

acre in tons 

of 2,200 

pounds. 



5.0G 
12.45 
10. 12 
12. 145 
10.12 
6.356 
6.680 
7.247 
10. 777 
15. 222 



9.611 



Cost per 
ton of 
roots. 



$5.80 
3.68 
3.00 
2.66 
3.36 
3.60 
3.44 
3.18 
2, ,iO 
4.00 



3.52 



30 

MANUFACTURE. 





No. of days' 

•work iitir 

auuum. 


Tons 
worked. 


Yield 
ill sugar. 


Sugar 
per 100 
of roots. 


Cost. 




Name. 


Total. 


Per 
ton of 
roots. 


Per 

pound of 
sugar. 


paid for 
roots. 




120 
150 
120 


600 
2, 250 
1,000 
2, 000 
1,000 


Pounds. 


3.0 
2 

3.75 
5 






Cents. 

11.3 

27 
9.9 
5.6 
6 


Per ton. 

$4.00 

6,05 

4.00 

3.00 


M. (le Dombasle 

Duke, of Kagu.sa 


99, 000 

82, 500 


$27, 65G 
87, 000 


$12, 29 
8.70 




150 























" Dubninfaut determines from bis owu observatious as the cost of pro- 
duction 5.2 cents per pound avoirdupois for the intermittent process, and 
4.8 cents for the continuous. Colonial sugars were at this time worth 
1.40 to 1.50 francs per kilogram, or 12.7 to 13.6 cents per pound, and it 
was stated to be impossible to produce them at a cost of less than 5.5 
cents x)er pound in the Antilles. 

" The above estimate of cost given by Dubrunfaut was for working 
about 1,000 tons per annum. For working double that quantity the net 
cost appears at that time to have been greater, and reached 5.8 cents 
for the intermittent process and 5.4 for the continuous process. 

" From this time the industry- continued to spread rapidly, and to pro- 
duce everywhere fruitful and profitable results, though, strange to say, 
no record seems to have been kept of the statistics of production in 
France until the year 1829, when it was stated at 4,000 tons. 

"In Germany the industry did not revive until after 1835, when atten- 
tion was called to it by Krause of Austria, and Schubarth of Prussia, 
who went to France, the first in 1834 and the second in 1836, to 
study the progress and condition of the manufacture. As a conse- 
quence of these trips and the prominence given by the prfess of the infor- 
.mation they carried home with them, the culture of the beet was inaugu- 
rated anew, factories were again erected in large numbers, and the 
industry soon became so powerful as to be competent to contribute to 
the revenue of the Government. 



31 



HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE CULTURE OF THE SUGAR-BEET 
AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR THEREFROM IN THE UNITED 
STATES OF AMERICA.* 

"Notwithstanding the progress that has been made in Europe in the 
culture of the sugar-beet and the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and 
immeusity and value of the industry it has supplied to European 
nations, the knowledge and experience resulting has not been applied 
in such a way in the United States as to make the production of sugar 
from this source a matter of any commercial or industrial importance, 
although attempts at the introduction of the industry have not been 
wanting. In most cases the attempts, which have had varying success 
or rather failure, seem to have been originated and guided by enthu- 
siasm rather than by sound judgment, based upon a previous close study 
of all the conditions which should influence or absolutely govern the 
success or failure of the enterprise. This is very evident from a review 
of the records we have of the various experiments which have been 
made both on a large and a small scale. 

"The first exj)eriment, made by two enterprising Philadelphians 
as early as 1830, was almost cotemjioraneous wi^ the final firm estab- 
lishment of the industry in France and the great interest manifested in 
it there, but it seems that these gentlemen were wholly ignorant of the 
requirements either of the culture of the root or the extraction of sugar, 
and failure was the natural result of their efforts. 

" Eight years later, David Lee Child, who had spent a year and a half 
in the beet-growing districts of Europe in careful study of all the require- 
ments, both of culture and manufacture, undertook in a small way the 
production of beet-root sugar at ]Srortham})ton, Mass. He was attracted 
by the method of drying the roots that had lately been invented by 
Schutzenbach, both for the purpose of preserving them and for facili- 
tating the extraction of sugar, but being, unable to obtain from Schutz- 
enbach any information concerning the details of the method unless he 
would purchase the exclusive right to use in the United States, and 
give security for payment in case success should be obtained in a model 
factory, Mr. Child operated the method with apparatus of his own 
device, by means of which he was able, with a temperature of 150° to 
185° Fahr., to dr}^ 800 pounds in twenty-four hours. The dried product 
was ground, treated with three times its weight of water, and subjected 
to pressure, giving, it was said, a liquid twice as rich in sugar as the 
ordinary juice of the beet. In his little work entitled ' The Culture of 
the Beet and the Manufacture of Beet Sugar,' Mr. Child informs us that 
the cost of culture in the Connecticut Eiver Valley was, in 1838 to 1839, 
$42 per acre, with an average yield of 13 to 15 tons; £hat the crop 
yielded 6 per cent, of sugar and 2^ per cent, of molasses, and the cost 



*McMurtrie, op. cit., p. 167, 



32 

of the sugar 11 cents per pound, pulp and manure not taken into 
account. But be does not mention the surface sown in beets nor the 
quantity worked up. From other sources, however, we learn that the 
quantity of sugar obtained was 1,300 pounds. 

" The interest in the beet-sugar industry in the United States seems 
to have been quite dormant, or at least not sufficiently strong to mani- 
fest itself in active work, and its subsequent history, which, as before 
stated, was a rather checkered one, began in 18G3 with the inauguration 
of the well-known enterprise at Chatsworth, 111., by the Genuert Broth- 
ers, formerly of Braunschweig, Germany, and later of New York City, 
which, on account of the ill-chosen location as regards soil and climate, 
really the two principal conditions of successful culture, failed after a 
struggle of nearly six years. Bad management and lack of practical 
knowledge of the industry in the first few years, bad culture in 1868, 
deluging rains in 1.S69, and drought in 1870, in addition to the abun- 
dance of nitrates found to exist in the soils, appear to be the causes tend- 
ing to the disastrous result. As a final struggle to maintain an existence 
the company removed the works to Freeport, in Stephenson County, of 
the same State, and though the saline character of the soil, which was 
a bane to the culture in the former locality, did not exist here, the effi 
cient management of the able superintendent could not provide against 
the unfavorable climatic influences, and one year later the Germania 
Beet Sugar CoDipauy finally succumbed, and its superintendent removed 
with some of the machinery of the late company to Black Hawk, Sauk 
County, Wis., to join with the co-operative enterprise that had been 
started there a year before. But the lessons of experience appear to 
have been no guide, for this attemj^t was made, like the previous ones, 
in a section not provided with the principal requirements for successful 
work. 

" The crop of 1870 partially failed through drought. The macbinery 
for the utilization of what there was arrived late, and the ponds upon 
which the company relied for water supply dried up before all the roots 
were worked for sugar, and a portion was left to be fed to cattle. 
Though additions were made to the works during the following year by 
means of machinery brought from Illinois and Fond du Lac, the result 
of 1871 does not seem to have been profitable, for since that time the 
enterprise has been so completely lost sight of that it is impossible to 
obtain any further information concerning it. The experiment at Fond 
du Lac, w bich, however, was not long continued, seems to have been 
the first to give unquestionably good results. It was started by two 
Germans, Messrs. Bonesteel and Otto, who organized a company with 
$12,000 capital, and though compelled, with their limited means, to 
work on a small scale, their success was such during the two years of 
existence of the enterprise as to attract the attention of capitalists on 
both sides of our continent, and they received an offer from Philadelphia 
of funds to carry on the work where they had so successfully established 



33 

it, and another from San Francisco to put tliem in charge of the works 
of the Alvjirado Sugar Company, which had just been organized with a 
capital of $250,000, and, finding the latter offer the most tempting, they 
abandoned their works at Fond du Lac and migrated to the Pacific 
coast, where they managed to carry on the work with varying success 
until 1873, when it was reported that the company proposed removing 
to a more eligible locality. But it does not appear that this proposition 
was carried out, for what reason we are not informed; though Mr. 
Otto, who was then superintendent, and who, with his colleague in the 
Fond du Lac enterprise, Mr. Bouesteel, had become partners in this 
company, was shortly afterwards transferred to Soquel, in Santa Cruz 
County, where as late as 1876 the factory was reported as being in suc- 
cessful operation. The Alvarado Company struggled on until 1876, 
when drought having destroyed tiie crop so completely that there was 
no raw material for work in the factory in the ensuing winter, the com- 
pau}^ not having realized euough to enable them to carry over until the 
following season, failed financially, and permanently closed their opera- 
tions. 

" The Sacramento Valley Company was organized in 1869, and com- 
menced extended operations in manufacture in 1870, and its existence 
was maintained until the close of 1875, when the machinery, which had 
cost $160,000 in Germany, was offered for sale at $45,000, and we have 
no information to the effect that it has been sold. Concerning the 
industry, a writer in the Alta California, during 1869, says : 

" ' Something new and unexpected has revealed itself. In Europe the beet attains 
its maximum of sugar in the latest period of growth before the frost sets in. Here it 
has lost half its sugar in the last six weeks — last of October. The beets taken from 
the same soil and milled in December by Wadsworth, superintendent, had the full 
comiilemeut of sugar.' 

"The Soquel factory soon followed the fate of the others, but causes 
of its failure have not been assigned. 

" The importance the manufacture attained in California is shown in 
the following statistics of beet sugar produced, published in 1874 by 
the State Agricultural Society : 

Pounds. 

1870 500,000 

1871 800,000 

1872 1.125,000 

1873 1,-500,000 

" But notwithstanding these figures, which are certainly flattering to 
the industry, there has not been a factory in operation In the State since 
1876, and the capital invested in the manufacture, nearly $1,000,000, 
has been a total loss, the causes of which may undoubtedly be traced 
to conditions determined in the Department during the present year by 
the study of European history and practices to be manifestly unfavor- 
able and decidedly deleterious to the successful prosecution of the in- 
dustry. We refer more particularly to the meteorological conditions 
^ 25474— Bull. 27 3 



34 

prevailiug during the seasou of growth, vvbicb, as appears from the re- 
lations worked out, have a clearly defined influence for good or for evil, 
for success or failure, iu the culture of the sugar-beat, and it is au in-' 
teresting fact to note that at none of the localities where the experiments 
made have been attended with failure are the prevailing meteorological 
conditions found withiu the limits determined to be favorable to or gov- 
erning the extension of successful culture. 

" The experiments made up to this time received no aid or encourage- 
ment either from the State governments or from the General Govern, 
ment, with the exception of the provision that no machinery purchased 
abroad and imported for manufacture of sugar from the beets in this 
country should be subject to customs duty, and the limited assistance 
given by the Department of Agriculture in contributions of seed of the 
better varieties lor experiment, and such information on the subject of 
the culture of the root and the manufacture of sugar as could be obtained 
by the means at hand; but this limited assistance was not of a charac- 
ter to produce any very marked effects. 

" In 1870 to 1871 the States of New Jersey and Massachusetts made 
legislative provision exempting from taxation for ten years from date all 
capital and property engaged in the beet-sugar industry, but no prac- 
tical results seem to have followed this provision. In New Jersey, how- 
ever, Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Camden, has during the past three years 
devoted a i^ortiou of his estate at Batsto to some very intelligent experi- 
ments in the culture, which, as regards the quantity of the product, 
has given unsatisfactory results, and only tend to show that the climatic 
conditions of the section, possibly combined with the light character of 
the soil, are not such as to render the permanent establishment of the 
industry in that locality possible. 

" In 1870 the Canadian Government offered a premium of 1 cent per 
pound for all sugar manufactured from the beet-root, the total sum paid 
to any one individual company or corporation not to exceed, however, 
$7,000 per annum. 

"This premium stimulated the culture of the crop and the establish- 
ment of factories, which have continued iu active and profitable opera- 
tion. 

" The State of Maine followed the worthy example of its near neigh- 
bor and iu the same substantial terms ; the Forest City Sugar Refinery 
at Portland hastened to take advantage of the premium offered, and the 
experiment on a small scale in the manufacture by the company, as had 
been the culture by the farmers in 1878, resulted in such brilliant suc- 
cess that the company have this year so enlarged the capacity of their 
works as to enable them to work 150 tons of roots per day and have se- 
cured from the farmers a crop from 1,250 acres of land. Their success 
has also animated the people of Massachusetts, who have organized a 
company for work at the locality of Child's experiment of 1838-'39, at 
Northampton, Mass. 



35 

"lu 1870 aud 1877 Delaware appropriated $300, and iu 1878-'79 
$1,500 to be expended in premiums, etc., to stimulate the culture, and 
the result has been the establishment of the Delaware Beet Sugar Com- 
pany at Wilmington. 

" In California also interest iu the industry has again been awakened 
through the instrumentality of Mr. Th. Gennert, whose worthy enthu- 
siasm led to the establishment of the enterprise in Canada and in Maine. 
The work is to be renewed at the factory of the former Alvarado Com- 
pany, and Gennert's scheme for drying the beets for preservation and 
transportation, which was attended with such disastrous results at 
Chatsworth and in Maine, is to be tried once more. It is understood 
that Mr. Gennert is now interested in the Alvarado Company and ex- 
pects to carry out his plan for drying the beet-roots, and, thus diminish- 
ing the cost of transportation, increase the profits of manufacture, in 
which we hope he may be successful. The culture of the beet has also 
been undertaken in Santa Clara County, where it is proposed to supply 
deficient moisture by irrigation, and to dry iu open sunlight the roots, 
of which it is declared two crops can be produced in one year. With- 
out wishing to discourage the enterprise in any Wiiy, we may venture to 
express the hope that the promoters are acquainted with the experience 
of the growers of the south of France and Italy, as described by Gus- 
tave Heuze in his work ^Les Plantes Foiirrageres,^ page 9, where he says: 

" ' The beet succeeds well in the cold climates of Europe. It will grow in southern 
countries, but it suffers there from heat or drought ; its root remain small, green, and 
contains little sugar. An attempt was made to hasten its growth iu Lonibardy by 
frequent irrigation during the summer, but irrigation was fatal to it, and growers 
■were forced to adopt other means to assure success.' 

" We would also call attention to the fact that in Algeria, where the 
enterprise of preparing beets for preservation and transportation by 
drying in open sunlight, the success, if any was obtained, has not ap- 
peared worthy of record. 

" Besides the arrangements that have been made for the production 
of sugar from the beet at the different places mentioned active interest 
has been awakened elsewhere, particularly at Baltimore, Md., Ciiester, 
Pa., and at various localities iu New York, but these movements have 
not yet assumed definite shape." 

THE Early history of beet-sugar industry at alvarado.* 

" No history of Alameda County would be complete without some 
mention of the rise and progress of this promising industry, which, so 
far as California and the Pacific coast are concerned, had its origin at 
Alvarado — its failure and its final success. 

" The first attempt to manufacture beet-root sugar iu California was 
made at Alvarado in 18G9. Messrs. Bonesteel, Otto & Co., who were 
engaged in a small way in the business at Fond dfl Lac, Wis., opened 

* Bull. No. 5, Chem. Div. U. S. Department of Agriculture, p. 89. 



36 

a correspondence upon the subject with General C. I. Hutchinson, E. 
IJ. Dyer, and others on this coast. The matter was pushed with zeal, 
and the ' California Beet Sugar Company ' was organized with a cap- 
tal stock of $250,000. The stockholders were : General 0. I. Hutch- 
inson, Flint, Bixby & Co., T. G. Phelps, E. H. Dyer, E. E. Carpentier, 
E. Dyer, W. B. Carr, W. T. Garratt, and E. G. Eollins, all well-known 
capitalists and enterprising business men of California; and A. D. 
Bonesteel, A. Otto, and Ewald Klinean, of Wisconsin. The eastern 
parties, who were to assume the technical management of the business, 
arrived in California in the spring of 1870, and arrangements were im- 
mediately made for the erection of a factory. The location chosen was 
the farm of E. U. Dyer, at Ah arado. The work was pushed with such 
energy that the building was completed by the contractor, B. F. In- 
galls, esq., in November of the same year. 

"It is unnecessary to follow minutely the history of this company. It 
is sufficient to say that, after running four years at Alvarado, through 
the incompetency of the technical managers, it proved a financial 
failure. Messrs. Bonesteel & Otto contended that the location at Al- 
varado, not being a suitable place for the business, was the cause of 
the failure, and succeeded, by their plausible representations, in or- 
ganizing a new company, which [)urchased the Alvarado machinery and 
removed it to Soquel, Santa Cruz County, wbere, after operating a few 
years, subjecting its stockholders to a heavy annual loss, the enterprise 
was abandoned. 

" E. H. Dyer, who had bought the buildings and a portion of the land 
owned by the old company at Alvarado, still had faith in the business, 
believing that with good management it could be made to pay at that 
l)lace. He found it very difticult, however, in the face of so many fail- 
ures, to induce ca[)italists to invest a sufficient amount to give the busi- 
ness another trial, and it was not until 1879 that the Standard Sugar 
Manufacturing Company was incorporated. The company consisted of 
A. E. Davis, O. F. Giffin, E. H. Dyer, Prescott, Scott & Co., J. P. 
Dyer, and Robert K Graves, with a capital of $100,000. It was soon 
ascertained that more capital was needed, and the company re-incor- 
porated under the name of the Standard Sugar Eefinery, with a capital 
stock of $200,000. The officers are : O. F. Giffin, president ; J. P. Dyer, 
vice-president; E. H. Dyer, general superintendent; W. F. Ingalls, 
secretary ; trustees, O. F. Giffin, E. N. Graves, J. P. Dyer, G. H. 
Waggoner, and E. H. Dyer. This company has made a success of the 
business from the start. It earned 33 per cent, on the capital invested 
the last or third campaign, and is now just commencing on its fourth 
campaign with very flattering prospects. The success of this impor- 
tant home industry is greatly due to the general management of Mr. 
Dyer, who owns one-fourth of the stock, and who, profiting by former 
experience, is able t<f avoid many mistakes which have caused the fail- 
ures of other establishments of the kind. The present factory has been 



37 

eulargcd aiul improved until it now bus a cai)acitv of about 100 tons 
per day ; employs at the factory lli5 meu, to say notliing of the great 
amount of hibor necessary to produce the beets, harvest and haul them 
to the factory. One, to obtain an adequate idea of the business of tiiis 
company and the great good it is doing in the way of using the products 
of the farmers and keeping employed so many of our people, should 
see the works in operation during the mouths of September, October, 
and l!:^ovember, when beets are being received. 

" There are irequently lines of teams, all heavily laden with beets, from 
a quarter to sometimes half a mile in length, pushing along in line to 
reach the company's scales and deliver their loads. It is a scene of 
great activity. From fifteen to twenty thousand tons of beets are used 
each campaign, which require for their production ten to fifteen hundred 
acres of land. The company disburses among its workmen and the 
farmers nearly $150,000 a year for labor and material used; all produced 
in Alameda County. They have turned out each campaign one and a 
half million pounds of pure white sugar. No low grades or yellow 
sugars are put on the market by them." 

BKET-SUGAR FACTORIES AT CHATSWORTH AND OTHER PLACES. 

In regard to these factories Prof. W. A. Henr^^ writes as follows* : 
'* The history of attempts to manufacture sugar from the beet in America 
isoneof almost continuous failure. In 1838 David Lee Child manufact- 
ured sugar in Massachusetts at 13 cents per pound, but a small quantity 
being made. In 1SG3 the Gennert Brothers, from Germany, built a 
factory at Chatsworth, III, in what is said to have been an unfortunate 
location, as the soil there was not suitable for beet-growing. Bad cult- 
ure, wet seasons, drought and a soil too full of mineral matter brought 
disaster, and about 1870 the enterprise collapsed. From Chatswoith 
the machinery was moved to Freeport,where the Germania Sugar Com- 
])any after a brief existence dissolved, and the machinery was again 
moved, this time to Black Hawk, Sauk County, Wis., where failure was 
again met. At Fond du Lac, in this State, Messrs. Bonesteol & Otto 
organized a company with $12,000 capital, and struggled during two 
years, making, it is reported, considerable sugar. Their success could 
not have been very marked, for they accepted an offer to join a company 
at Alvarado, Cal., which started out with $250,000 capital. The Alva- 
rado Company also went to the wall, as did two or three other California 
concerns. A factory was also started in Maine, and another in Dela- 
ware, but these met the universal fate. The Alvarado factory was re- 
organized, and for several years made considerable quantities of sugar, 
the product some years reaching two or three million pounds; but owing 
to the antiquated machinery and limited capacity the investors rc(;eivcd 
little or no dividends. 

* WcHtein Faniior, Madison, Wis., Miircli -J'.), 18:>(». 



38 

" The beet-suf]jar industry in America may be said to liavc closed its 
first era a couple of years ago, and the results, from a financial stand- 
point, may be summed up in one phrase, 'complete failure.' 

" We are now, I trust, entering the second era, which will doubtless be 
more successful than the first, but its history lies in the future, and its 
making is with the people. 

"The second era of the industry may be said to have begun with the 
reorganization of the Alvarado factory upon a sound basis last year, 
and the building of the Spreckels' factory at Watsonville, Cal. These 
enterprises are in the hands of men who will succeed if success is pos- 
sible." 

For further particulars respecting the Ohatsworth factory I wrote to 
Mr. John P. Eeynolds, of Chicago, and received the following reply: 

Chicago, December 9, 1889. 

Dear Sir: Your favor of 5th instant, requesting written papers or 
observations T may wish to make upon the subject of beet-sugar manu- 
facture in this country, is received. 

Twenty-odd years ago, at Chatsworth, 111., some few of us made about 
a $300,000 failure in attempting to establish that manufacture. The fac- 
tory was well equipped, as we understood it. The lands, say 1,000 acres, 
were first-class higli, rolling prairie. Compared with the i)resent the 
processes of manufacture and machinery were doubtless imperfect, but 
they were supposed to be the best approved in Germany at that time. 
After we gave it up the business was carried to Freeport, 111., and 
started up by three gentlemen of large wealth, on good old lands, by the 
side of a town of 15,000 people. It failed again. 

Without going into details further, I must say that I have given up 
hope for the early success of beet-sugar industry in this country, because 
I believe the essential conditions are not to be found here at present. 
These conditions relate to the production of the beets. The manufact- 
urer must grow his own beets, or have them grown in the vicinity by 
others. He can not command the necessary labor to grow them him- 
self, except at a cost that the results will not justify. There is no 
<jrop within the whole range of agriculture more difficult to produce 
than a crop of beets suitable for the manufacture of sugar. An army 
of women and children (being the cheapest labor) is required impera. 
tively at special times, and I know of no community where this army 
can certainly be had when needed and at a fair cost. 

If others grow the beets, contracts must be made in advance for the 
entire crop of each, a certain number of acres to be cultivated. The 
product per acre is variable and uncertain in both quantity and quality. 
There may be a superabundance for the capacity of the factory, or there 
may be a failure of the crop almost entirely. As to price per ton the 
advantage is always on the side of the farmer. The manufacturer must 
pay what the farmer may demand, or quit the business and lose his 
plant. The farmer can use his land for other crops; the factory will 
make only beet-sugar. 



39 

"With irrigated lauds and slave labor, or its equivalent, I cau under- 
stand that sugar from beets can be produced profitably intbis country. 
I would like to believe this industry will soon demonstrate the error 
of my present convictions thus briefly stated, and certainly the eflbrt to 
make it successful is worthy auy man's ambition. 
Yours, truly, 

John P. Reynolds. 
Mr. H. W. Wiley, 

Chemist, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

STATISTICAL, 

THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1888-'80. 

During this campaign the new law levying a part of the tax on the 
beets and a part on the sugar produced came into operation for the first 
time. The object of this law is to diminish the bounty paid on exports. 
By the new law the tax on the beets has been reduced to .SO marks per 
100 kilograms, instead of 1.7 marks as by the former law. On the 
other hand, sugars entering consumption pay 12 marks per 100 kilo- 
grams, whereas before they paid nothing when made from native beets. 

The quality of the beet root harvested in 1888-'89 was much inferior 
to that of the preceding year. This inferiority was caused by a late 
wet spring and an excess of rain in June and July. While tlie yield 
of beets was larger, the saccharine strength was lower than had been 
known before in many years. The yield of sugar was also diminished 
by early frosts, by which many beets were frozen before they could be 
properly harvested ami siloed. The juice of such beets was cooked with 
extreme difficulty, being difficult to filter and granulate. Many factories 
by reason of these difficulties were led to refuse to accept beets that 
had been frozen. 

The following table, according to M. Licht, gives the actual produc- 
tion of sugar in Germany in metric quintals* and the percentage of 
yield on the weight of the beet from 1871 to 1889 : 

[Sugar, April, 1890, p. 496.] 



Tear. 



1871-72 
1872-73 
1873-74 
1874-75 
1875-76 
1876-77 
1877-78 
1878-79 
ie79-'80 



Real pro- 


Actual 


duction. 


yield. 




Per et. 


1, 864, 419 


8.28 


2, 625, 511 


8.25 


2, 910, 407 


8.25 


2, 564, 124 


9.30 


3, 580, 482 


8.60 


2, 909, 227 


8.19 


3, 805, 091 


9.30 


4, 301, 551 


9.35 


4, 154, 152 


8.64 



Tear. 



1880-'81 
1881-'82 
1882-83 
1883- '84 
1884-'85 
1885-'86 
1886-'87 
1887-'88 
1888-'89 



Real pro- 
duction. 



5, 730, 214 

6, 222, 885 

8, 489, 226 

9, 606, 093 
11,467,303 

8, 381, 049 
10, 237, 339 

9, 591, 184 
9, 904, 776 



Actual 
yield. 



Per ct. 

9.06 

9.92 

9.71 

10.77 

11.02 

11.85 

12.32 

13.77 

12.55 



Divide by 10 to get tons of 2,200 poundK each. 



40 

COMPARATIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANE AND HEET SUGAK IN- 
DUSTRY.* 

The following table expresses in tons of 2,200 pounds the relative 
amounts of cane and beet sugar made in the world during the past 
seven years: 



Tear. 


Beet. 


Cane. 


Total. 


1883 '84 


2,361,000 
2, 546, OuO 

2, 220, 000 
2, 730, 000 
2, 45J, 000 

2, 76."), 000 

3, 500, 000 


2, 323, 000 
2. 351, 000 
2, 340, 000 
2, 345, 000 
2, 470, 000 
2, 280. 000 
2, 278, 000 


2, 684, 000 


1884 '85 


4, 8!)7, 000 


Ih85 '86 


4,560,(100 


1886 '87 


5, (175, 000 


1887 '88 


4, 92-', 000 


1888-'89 


5. 0^5, 000 


1889-'90 


5, 778, 000 







It is seen from the above table that the production of cane-sugar has 
remained stationary or even diminished during thelast septennial jieriod 
wliile the production of beet-sugar has ex[)erienced an enormous progress. 

Willet and Gray (Louisiana Phintcr and Sugar Manufacturer, April 5, 
1890), give the following estimate of the total sugar crop of the world, 
in tons, for the last five years : 



Country. 


li=89-'90. 


1888-'89. 


1887-'88. 


1886-'87. 


1885-".' 6. 


Cuba 


600, 

70, 000 

60, 000 

00, 000 

30, 000 

28, OUO 

40, 000 

50, 000 

125, 000 

30, 000 

125, 000 

310, 000 

60, 000 

150, 000 

180,000 

125, 000 

30, 000 

35, 000 

120,000 


530, 000 
55, 000 
CO, (jOO 
50, 000 
28, 000 
25, 000 
38, 000 
45. 0(10 
108, 000 
25, 000 
132, OUO 
364, 000 
00, 000 
220, 000 
210,000 
145, 000 
30. 000 
35. 000 
120, 000 


010, 000 

50, 000 

CO, 000 

CO, 000 

30, 000 

26, 000 

39, 000 

50, 000 

110,000 

32, 000 

120, 000 

396, 000 

55, 000 

320, 000 

174,000 

158, 000 

30, 000 

35, 000 

100, 000 


608, 900 
86, 000 
69, 000 
65, 000 
21,000 

25, 000 
41, 000 
55, 000 

135, 000 
32, 000 
101, 800 
363, 950 
50, 000 
260, 0(10 
180,000 
80, 900 

26, 000 
50, 000 
95, 000 


705, 400 




C4, 000 




49, 200 


liarbadoes 

Jamaica 


44, 000 
17, 000 
25, Olio 




33, 000 




37, 000 




111,800 




35, 000 




114, 2U0 


Java 


365, 950 
50, 000 




186,000 




1><6, (HiO 




127, 9U0 


Peru 


27, 000 




65, 000 




96. 500 








2, 228. 000 

3, 550, 000 


2, 2r)4. 000 
2, 753, 844 


2. 465, 000 
2,451,950 


2, 345, 550 
2, 730, 206 


2, 330, 950 


Total of beet 


2, 210, 973 




5, 778, 000 


5, 007, 844 


4, 916, 950 


5, 075, 756 


4, 550, 923 







La Sucrerie Beige of March 15, 1890, page 372, gives the following 
estimate of the total production of beet sugar in Europe during the 
l)ast four years, in tons of 2,200 pounds: 



Country, 


1889-'90. 


1888-'89. 


1887-'88. 


1886-'87. 




1,220,000 

730, 000 

750, 000 

445, 000 

172, 000 

55, 000 

20, 000 

25, 000 


978, 000 

514, 000 

460, 000 

503, 000 

96, 000 

35, 000 

19, 000 

21,000 


953, 400 

400, 000 

420, 000 

430, 000 

93, 000 

37, 000 

21, 000 

14, 000 


1, 015, 600 




550, 000 




497, 000 




455, 000 




91, 000 


Holland 


36, 000 




18, 300 




13, 000 






Total 


3, 417, 000 


2, 626, 000 


2, 368, 400 


2, 675, 900 







* La Sncrorio Indigeuc, Marcb 11, 18'.»0, p. 2:V.i. 



41 



STATISTICS OF THE PRODUCTION OF CANE AND BEET SUGAR. 

Licht, of Magdeburg, in his last report (Journal des Fabricauts de 
Sucre, March 20, 1890), gives the followiug figures for the production 
of beet sugar in Europe for the last three campaigns : 

[In tons of 2,200 pounds.] 



Coiinlry. 


1887-'88. 


1888-'89. 


1889-'90. 




056, 166 
428,616 
392,821 
441, 342 
140, 742 
39, 2W 
79, 98u 


990, 604 
52 i, 242 
466, 767 
.525, 387 
145, 804 
46, 040 
87, ObO 


1,260,000 




750, 000 


France, 


77.=., (100 
475, 01 




200, 000 


HoUmimI 


60, (1(10 
8(1, OdO 






Total . 


2,481,950 


2, 785, 844 


3, 600, uOO 







PRODUCTION IN RUSSIA.* 

During the campaign of lS89-'90 two hundred and twenty-five fac- 
tories were operated in Kussia. The harvest of beets amounted to 
17,370 kilograms per hectare against 18,080 kilograms per hectare the 
preceding year. The beets also were much poorer in quality during 
the last year, the mean polarization being 12.93 Der cent, of sugar against 
14.20 j)er cent, the preceding year. 

THE PRODUCTION OF CANE SUGAR IN .JAVA.* 

During the season of 1889 there were operated in Java one hundred 
and seventy-eight factories, producing 5,440,397 piculs of sugar. 



PRODUCTION OF SEED. 

There is, perhap.';, no other agricultural crop which has illustrated in 
80 marked a manner the importance of seed selection as the sugar beet. 
By the careful selection of those variations in the original beet which 
seemed most favorable to the production of sugar, and the careful selec- 
tion of beets in the production of seed during the succeeding year, and 
by judicious and scientific fertilizing for the purpose of increasing the 
sugar content, there has been a great evolution in the sugar-producing 
power of the beet which has placed it at the head of the sugar-producing 
plants of the world. 

The influence of the quality of the seed, according to Vilmorin, is 
absolutely predominant from the point of view of the results obtained in 
the culture of the sugar beet. The numerous experiments of scientific 
investigators has ?hown that remark to be true. In France the firm of 
Vilmorin- Andrieux &> Co. has paid special attention to the improvement 

"Journal des Fabricants do Sucre, March 19, 1890. 



42 

of the standard varieties of the sugar beet by the method above men- 
tioned. The\^ have endeavored to produce different varieties of beets 
of which each one would have all the i>ossible advantages in the differ- 
ent economical and culture experiments to which manufacturers and 
farmers will submit them. 

It is true, without doubt, that the same variety of beet could not be the 
most advantageous in every case, and that, according to tlie results to be 
obtained, it might be an advantage in one place to cultivate a variety ex- 
tremely rich and in another place one, which, wliile still ricii in sugar, 
would also produce a heavy yield in pounds. To these different needs 
different varieties of beets respond. In one case the i)'irc white variety, 
in another the white variety with green neck or the rose variety with 
rose neck, or the Vilmorin Improved, a variety which is suitable every- 
where and particularly in those countries where the duty on beet-sugar 
is laid directly on the beet. Since tlie introduction of the new law iu 
France, in 1884, levying the tax upon the actual weight of beet pro- 
duced, the White Improved Vilmorin beet has recommended itself by 
its exceptional ricliness, its great purity, and the ease with which it can 
be preserved. But in order to meet all the conditions necessary to the 
greatest success it is necessary to find out by experiment that variety 
of beet, which, in any giveu locality, fultills most of the conditions re- 
quired to produce a high yield of sugar with a minimum cost and one 
which will be equally profitable to the farmer and manufacturer. 

At the present tinu^, it is necessary in this country to go abroad for 
beet seed of the highest character. Up to the present time the sugar- 
beet seed which has been grown in this country has been i>roduced without 
especial reference to the conditions necessary to maintain the beet at a 
high standard and to improve it as is done in foreign countries. In 
other words, the sugar-beet seed which one will obtain from American 
dealers, if it should be that which is growu at home, does not come 
with the pedigree of the beet, in regard to content of sugar and purity 
of juice, nor with that assurance of care in cultivation which the pro- 
fessional producers of beet seed in foreign countries bestow upon their 
work. There is no reason, however, to suppose that it is ini practicable 
to produce beet seed in this country of as high a grade and of as pure 
a quality as that which can be obtained in other countries. The method 
of doing this will be briefly indicated. 

In growing the beets the greatest care should be taken to secure all 
the conditions necessary to produce a beet of maximum richness in sugar, 
coupled with a yield per acre of fair proportions. This can be done by 
attending to the directions for culture to be given, combined with 
judicious application of those fertilizers which will tend to increase the 
sugar coiitent of the beet without unduly increasing its size. The fer- 
tilizers which are most suitable for this purpose are carbonate of lime, 
when it is not present in sufficient quantities in the soil, a small quantity 
of magnesia, and larger quantities of phosphoric acid with varying pro- 



43 

portions of potash and nitrogen, according to the character of the soil 
in which the beets are grown. No certain rule can be given for the ap- 
plication of fertilizers nntil the conditions of the season and the character 
of the soil in each particular locality have been carefully studied ex- 
perimentally. For this reason, it is certain that in this country, as in 
others, the business of producing beet seed will be one entirely distinct 
from that of raising beets for manufacture or for the manufacturing 
thereof. It is this business which will require not only the highest 
scientific agriculture but the most careful agronomic skill. 

SELECTTON OF "MOTHERS." 

The beets which are to be used for producing the seed should be 
selected on account of the possession of those properties which are most 
suitable to secure the highest results in the production of sugar. In 
the first place, all beets of irregular or uuwieldly shape should be re- 
jected ; those selected shouhl be of uniformly even texture, smooth out- 
line, and symmetiical shape. 

The sugar content of these beets should be determined by the analy- 
sis of others grown in the same plot and of the same seed, and thus ob- 
tain the average content of sugar for the whole lot. Only that class of 
beets showing the highest content of sugar combined with the qualities 
given above, and the greatest purity of juice, should be preserved. In 
many cases the beets themselves, which are to be used for propagation 
of seed, are subjected to analysis by the removal of a cylindrical sec- 
tion by an instrument provided for that purpose and the analysis of this 
section. In this way the actual sugar content of the beet which pro- 
duces the seed can be obtained. It is sai<l that good results have also 
been secured by replacing the portion of the beet removed by sugar at 
the time of planting, which will afford an additional food product for 
the earlier growth of the beet in its second year. 

Another method of selecting the beets, which has been widely era- 
ployed, is that of determining their density. A solution of some sub- 
stance is made in water, such as salt or sugar, of such a density as to 
permit beets of inferior quality to float on the surface and those of 
superior quality to sink. These; heavier beets, other things being equal, 
contain larger quantities of sugar and are more suitable for the pro- 
duction of seed. The beets, of course, which are to be used for the pro- 
duction of seed must be very carefully harvested so as not to be bruised, 
leaving the roots as much as possible uninjured, and they must be care- 
fully preserved in silos over the winter until the time for transplanting 
in the spring. The transplanting and the successful cultivation of the 
beets need no detailed description. 

The character of the beet is also sometimes determined by removing 
a small portion, as indicated above, for polarization, expressing the juice 
and determining its specific gravity by weighing in the juice a silver but- 
ton of known weight. 



44 

The absolute necessitj^ of securing a few beets of tbe highest sugar 
co-efificieut and purity for the jiurposo of producing a crop of seed iu 

tliird, fourth, or fifth year, according to tlie number selected, has in the 
last; few years been recognized to a degree unknown before. At first 
it was the custom to select the beets, b}' some of the methods mentioned 
above, in large numbers sufficient to grow in the second year seed for 
the market. A much more rational method, however, and one wUicli 
secures higher results, consists in a more careful selection of the mother 
beets for the purpose, not of producing seed for the market in the sec- 
ond year, but only for the purpose of producing for securing an addi- 
tional crop of beets in the third year which in the fourth year will pro- 
duce seed fortlie market. The methods employed by different seedsmen 
vary somewhat, but the principle in all cases is the same. The general 
method may be indicated by that pursued by Dii)pe in Quedlinburg :* 

First i/ear.— Seed planting for mother beets, from seed which came 
from the highest polarizing beets of different varieties, which have, of 
course, been kept separate. The planting is in rows 18 inches apart, 
and the plants are cut away in the rows so as to stand 10 or 12 inches 
apart. At the time of harvesting the beets are selected out according 
to form, growth, and leaf formation, as these best approximate the char- 
acteristics of the parent variety. 

Second year. — In March and April these selected beets are examined 
in the laboratoryt in the following manner : 

At a certain point which it is presumed will give an average of the 
entire beet, a cylindrical piece is cut out, subjected to strong pressure 
in a juice-press, which will give, for example, from 17 grams of beet 10 
grams of juice, of which 5 cubic centimeters are diluted with lead ace 
tate and water to 25 cubic centimeters, filtered and polarized. For the 
different varieties minimum limits are established, and the beets are 
arranged in three classes according to their polarization : 

First, beets which go below the limit and are thrown out ; second, 
beets which are above the limit, and fairly good tor seed purposes, and, 
third, beets which show an extra high figure. 

These extra good beets are now examined still further, two more cyl- 
inders taken out, and the sugar estimated by the extraction method. 
From this result and the estimation of the sugar in the juice the (ap- 
parent) content of juice is calculated. Tliose beets which do not reach 
a standard, established for each variety (between 92 and 94), are thrown 
out, while those that attain it are the chosen "mother beets" of the 
crop, which are to perpetuate the variety, and which furnish the seed 
for each new succession, as mentioned in the first paragraph. 

In this second year are planted out all the beets saved, the extra and 
medium as well ; the former furnish seed for extra mother beets, which 

* Stammer, pp. 200, etscq., Lelirbuch der Zncker Fabrication. 

tTliis is not done until spring iu order tliat only well-pi-eserved beets may bo 
chosen. 



45 

are used as indicated for the uoruial-sized mother beets wliich furnisli 
seed for a new succession, while the latter are to produce a generation 
of dwarfs, the seed from both being harvested this year. 

Third year. — The seed from the medium and extra mother beets is 
planted, and the latter produce the mother beets for future breeding 
purposes, as indicated, but the plants from the former seed, whicli was 
planted a little later than would be the case for beets ordinarily, and in 
soil fertilized with ammouiacal superphosphate and also some guano, 
in rows 13 inches apart, are cut out to about every 3 to 5 inches. The 
small beets are very carefully i>reserved under a thick covering of earth. 
In the spring of the 

Fourth year. — They are uncovered and planted at about 26 to 24 
inches apart. The seed from these when harvested in the fall is ready 
for the market, so that it has taken five years to attain this end. 

In the establishment of Branne, in Biendorf, the procedure is similar, 
but the beets are selected by their specific gravity in the field. A 
woman sits at a table and cuts from each beet a very snuill piece and 
throws it into a solution of salt of known density (for example, with 
the Klein Wanzleben, 10° Brix). If the piece of beet floats, the cor- 
responding beet is thrown away, but if it sinks the beet is reserved for 
further investigation in the laboratory. The beets chosen in this way 
are submitted to further selection by the examination of the juice from 
a cylinder. 

In a somewhat ditferent way, but still by means of the examination 
of individual beets, is the culture of the Klein Wanzleben variety car- 
ried on by Eabbethge, in Klein Wanzleben, whose object is not so much 
to furnish establishments with all the seed they require for planting, 
but rather with seed for the production of mother beets, and their own 
seed from these. The fact that Klein Wanzleben has never yet har- 
vested more than 3 tons of seed ui a season indicates the character 
of the work, which is much to be commended. 

The^seeds are always taken from mother beets of considerable weight, 
never from small or dwarf beets, and the aim is not so much to produce 
individual beets of exceptionally high sugar content, but large beets as 
well ; that is, beets which give the highest yield of sugar from a given 
amount of land. These roots, which are chosen from a field of the best 
(Elite) beets, and which possess most distinctly the characteristics of 
the variety, are weighed and their juice polarized, and this operation is 
continued until 20,000 beets are chosen which fulfill the requirements 
as to weight and sugar content. 

These 20,000 best mother beets are sufficient to furnish the planting 
of a hectare (2^ acres), and from them are obtained 40 to GO hundred 
weight of the best (Elite) seed, and this gives the following year GO to 
100 hectares of the best (Elite) beets, or 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 plants. 
From these are finally chosen the 1,500,000 seed-bearers which lurnish 
the planting of 100 hectares and the seed for sale and for the perpetua- 
tion of the breed. 



46 

An entirely difterent method of selection is what is known as "family" 
breeding;'. Ilmidreds of specially-selected beets, excellent in every way, 
are planted out separately. The seed of each is gathered and planted 
separately. If among the beets thus obtained any are found that excel 
the mother beet in every respect, and this improvement endures through 
several generations, these are incorporated with the other mother beets 
and used for breeding. As examples of weight and polarization of the 
selected beets the following figures for the highest and lowest weights 
are given, representing the best mother beets of the years 1883 and 
1884: 



Weij;lit. 


Sucrose 
in juice. 


Weight. 


Sucrose 
in juice. 


Orams. 


Per cent. 


Grams. . 


Per cent. 


J, 550 


11.24 


600 


15.11 


1,450 


13. C8 


6110 


16. 28 


1,250 


14.29 


600 


16.28 


1.500 


15.87 


400 


IB. 13 


1,450 


14. 60 i 


550 


15. 02 


1,700 


11.76 


400 


16.83 


1, 8ti(l 


14.86 1 


550 


16.88 


2,100 


14.3.5. : 


400 


16. 63 


1,900 


14.60 


60U 


15.63 


600 


16.13 t 







Among 200 beets were found only 11 with a weight of less than 500 
grams; V2 with a weight of 500 to GOO grams; 29 with a weight of COO 
to 700 grains; 21 with a weight of 700 to 800 grams; and finally 127, or 
G3 per cent., with a weigLt of over 800 and up to as high as 2,100 grams. 

The beets between 700 and 1,000 grams are of nearly identical sugar 
content, a peculiarity of the Klein Wanzleben variety. 

The established normal weight varies, according to the season, be- 
tween GOO and 000 grams ; in the year 1883 it was 897 grams, corre- 
sponding to the average of the beets from a field. 

A still diflerent method is followed by v. Proskowetz (Kwassiz). The 
beets from which selections, are to be made are placed in a solution of 
salt showing 17.5° Brix, and those which float are used as fodder; those 
which sink are analyzed for sugar content by the alcohol extraction 
method, for which purpose a small quantity, half the normal weight, is 
cut out with a rasp and polarized in a 400-millimeter tube. Beets which 
give at least 19 per cent, of the beet in sucrose form the first class; those 
showing 18 to 18.9, inclusive, the second, and those from IG to 18 the 
third. Beets under 16 per cent, are used for fodder. 

PRESERVATION OF BEET-SEED. 

It is recommended by D'Haussy (Jour, des Fabricants de Sucre, April 
IG, 1890) to place in each bag 100 pounds of seed, 1 pound of powdered 
sulphur, and 1 ounce of carbolic acid, and mix thoroughly. 

These substances preserve the seed completely from every kind of 
insect from the time it is i)lanted until the root is developed. The out- 
side of the bag should be coated with tar, and the seed kept therein 
for two weeks before planting. 



47 



VARIETIES OF BEETS GROWN IN FRANCE.* 



THEIR CHARACTEKS, MODE OF SELECTING, ETC. 

"The impoitauce of the variety or race of tbe beet to be growu for 
sugar cau not be questioned. A beet giving a large cultural yield rich 
in sugar involves no more cost to the grower in its production than one 
giving a small yield and low saccharine value. It is therefore useful to 
choose those which will give the greatest returns and be at the same 
time the most satisfactory in every way to the grower who must pro- 
duce them and to the manufacturer who must extract the sugar. 

" For the latter it is admitted that the raw material — the juice of which 
contains the smallest percentage of mineral and organic imi)urities, other 
things being equal — will give a larger yield of sugar than juices in which 
these constituents exist in larger proportions, and it is well known and 
generally understood that these favorable conditions are found in roots 
of moderate size more frequently than in large ones. Thus Briemt says 
' The size of the beet is in the inverse ratio of its content of sugar and 
salts ; the content of water increases with the size and weight of the 
beet'; and Champion and Pellet state | that beets of good quality gen- 
erally have an average weight of 700 to 800 grams (U to Ijl pounds), 
and this size seems to be generally adopted as the most favorable by 
the best authorities on beet culture in France and by the mauufa(;turers 
almost unanimously. 

" The rule that the smaller the beet the richer in sugar appears to 
find illustration if not complete confirmation in the results of examina- 
tion of the beets submitted by Professor Delierain § to experiment 
at the college farm at Grignou and produced from seed furnished by 
Vilmorin-Aiidrieux & Co. 



Number. 


Improved expoaitioii 
beets. 


Improved beets No. 

848. 


I'iuk-top beets, Ver- 
lilies. 


Piuk top No. 34. 


Weight 
of beet. 


Susrar in 
juice. 


Weight. 


Susiar iu 
juice. 


Weight. 


Sugar in 
juice. 


Weight. 


Sugar in 
juice. 


1 


Grams. 
395 
365 
720 
600 
620 
740 
1,130 
850 


Per cent. 
18.1 
16.7 
IB. 4 
15.6 
15.0 
13.9 
13.4 
13.2 


Grams. 
282 
330 
660 
450 
385 
335 
560 
580 


Per cent. 
20.0 
20.0 
18.8 
18.7 
18.4 
18.4 
17.7 
16.9 


Qrams. 
980 
460 
630 
627 
890 
1,150 


Per cent. 
13.10 
12.05 
11.30 
10.00 
0.84 
9.20 


Grams. 

530 

622 

837 

1, 115 

1,040 


■Per cent. 
13 75 


2 


13 10 


3 

4 


12.50 
11. 25 


5 


10. 60 


6 




7 






8 




















Averages . . 


677 


15.5 


447 


18.6 


789 


10.91 


828 


12.24 



"The form of the beetseems also to be an important feature in the con- 
sideration of the proportion of sugar to be obtained, and Champion 

* McMurtrie, op. cit. pp. 71 et. scq. 

t Journal des Fabricants tie Sucre, October 21?, 1878. 

t La Betterave h Sucre, p. 98. 

$ Auuales Agronomiquea. 



48 

and Pellet further state,* concerning? beets of good quality, " their form 
is elongated and tapering." This admits of more thorough penetration 
of the root in the soil, more complete contact with the nutritive ele- 
ments, moisture, etc., insures the plant against variations of existing 
conditions, and consequently a healthier state, from which must natu- 
rally follow a better quality. 

"Coren winder and Contamine t find that there is a relation between 
the size of the leaves and the richness of the roots ; that roots which 
bear leaves of broad surface are generally more rich in sugar than those 
having small leaves upon a contracted top, and tliese facts are confirmed 
by analyses of subjects taken from the same field. At the aame time 
Deheraiu concludes from his researches J that the weight of leaves of 
small beets is relatively greater than is produced by larger ones. The 
relations found are as follows : 



Variety of beets. 



Pink topO 

Pink top Euterr6 
Improved 1, 093 . 
Improved 937 



Weight of 
leaves. 


Weight of 
roots. 


Orams. 
281 
375 
531 
531 


Oramn. 
1,393 

984 
863 
787 



Sugar in 100 
of juice. 



9.94 

10.18 
14.42 
14.78 



In connection with this relation between the size and richness of the 
sugar-beet and tlie numoer and weight of leaves they bear Champion 
and Pellet § give following figures. 



Variety of beets. 



Improved Vilniorin 

Simon Legrand (choice) .. 
Oidiniiry of sugar factories 



Loaves per i Sugar in 
100 of roots. beet. 



Pounds. 


Per cent. 


56 


14.5 


33 


13.3 


20 


11.8 



Beets produced in spmal cultures. 



Variety. 



Ordinary seed, special culture .. 
Ordinary seed, ordinary culture. 



Iloot.s. 


Leaves. 


Pounds. 
100 
100 


Pounds. 
52 

28 



Sugar. 



Per cent. 
13.2 
11.8 



" Other tests gave — 



Sugar in 
roots. 



Per cent. 
15.4 
15.2 
H.l 



Weight 

of leaves 

per 100 

pounds. 



Sugar in 
roots. 



Per cent. 
14.7 
13.1 
13.8 



Weight 

of leaves 

per 100 

pounds. 



* La Better.ivo a Sucre. 

t Annalcs Agroii()iiii<jiif,s, (. IV, ^.''O. 



Sugar in 
roots. 


Weight 
of leaves 
per 100 
pounds. 


Per cmt. 
13 5 
12.4 
11.8 


36 
25 
26 



t //>., t. Ill, 98 

V La Betteravo a Sucre. 



49 

" These are the principal external characteristics which seem to have 
an influence upon the composition and value of the beet, and for the de- 
scription of the varieties finding greater favor in France and most ex- 
tensively grown we shall quote from the writing of Mons. H. Yilmorin : 

" It is generally admitted that the saccharine richness of beets is inversely propor- 
tional to their volume. Taken in a general way this proposition expresses a truth, 
but it is certain that selection judiciously applied may cause a variatiou of this rela- 
tion, and enrich a given race of beets without diminishing either the volume or the 
yield. It is in modifications of this kind that we should seek the practical im- 
provement of the beet, and the end proposed is to create, at different degrees of the 
scale, races of beets uniting with a given yield the maximum saccharine richness com- 
patible with that yield. 

" The search for a beet which shows at the same time a maximum of product and a 
maximum of richness is a chimera, and the sooner its pursuit is relinquished the more 
will disappointment and useless endeavor be avoided. In fact, high saccliarine rich- 
ness is necessarily allied to a great abundance of leaves and rootlets, and beets rich 
in lootlets and leaves can not become voluminous without becoming deformed and los- 
ing the external qualities of regularity and cleanliness which are in a great measure 
indispensable to a good race of sugar-beets. 

" Starting out, therefore, with the idea that the different circumstances in which the 
manufiicturer or the grower finds himself placed demand diffei'ent beets, let us exam- 
ine the really known varieties and what they may become under the iulluence of skill- 
fully api)lied selection. 






Fio. 1.— White Silesian Beet. 



Fig. 2. — Imperial Beet. 



"The White Silesian sugar-beet (Fig. 1], origin and point of departure of all the 
other varieties, is still preferred above all in a large part of Europe. It is a race of 
medium size, almost entirely buried witli white skin, slightly wrinkled, leaves rather 
spreading than erect. It is rich in sugar, generally containing 12 to 14 per cent. 
Its yield in good conditions is about 30 tons per acre. It is perfectly adapted to close 

25474— Bull. 27 4 



50 



cult lire, ;uul iIooh iiuI. roi|iiiro vory tltn^p Hoiln. duUivjitdd in Fuinrn (ui hoiiio yojiru, it 
lifiH iiici'oiiHotl in voliiiiio, iiiid liiiH como to yiold ounily 2'2 to 2!{ tons p«^r aero. Now 
tliut tlioit) iH H IrudiMicy to lotmii to boots ricli in Hu^ar, tho acvltmatcd while German 
boot is onoof tho variotios moat rooouunondod. 

"Of Miis tlioro oxist Hovoral Hnb-vsiiiotioH, obtninod by Hol(U'iion. Wo oiln anionj^ 
(lio nioHt distinot tho Mai/ilchiirn, rathrr Hniall, bnt lonff and vory rognhir ; tho lirvKhm, 
Hhuilof and inoro Hwollon ; <ho linjxriiil boot (Fij;. '2), obiiiinod by Knjiiior, wbi<di is 
bnig, rcfriiliiily taporing, having tho form of a ciiirot, lolingo light-roloidd, ('ni'ly,and 

ajjproaching tliogionnd; (ho ICIcclnial , of i\w wrnxo origin, 

nioro (gonllot^) HwolhMi, largor, and inoro prodnctivo, bnt 

Hlighdy hvsH rich llian tlio JmjK'rinl. 

" Tho <irioii-U)}> Hiignr-bool, a. Fn^nch raco (l''ig. I!), in in 

inncli loHH favor ttVdiiy tlian it was fiftoon yoaiN ago. It 

is, howovor, an oxcolh^nt raot*, largor, bottor forniod, and 

Hnioodior than tho Silosian boot. Tho top, which pro- 

trmloH IroMi tho oarth a fow continiotors (a oouplo of 

inchoH) only, is colorod grotn ; tlio root \h long, smooth, 

and vvhito, This v.'irii^ty may givoas higli as li.T> tons por 

jioro, containing from II toll 

percent. olHngar. Maniifacit- 

nn'rs who liavt^ continnod t,o 

enltivati(^ it liavo hiid reason 

to be HatiiHli(^d with it. Wo 

havt^ known itsyitdd in sngar 

to bo as liigh as 3.(>i) tons of 

2,()()() pounds por aero. 

"Tho French j»tM/i" (oi> boot 

(Fig. 4) ist hat which hasboi^n 

most generally grown for 

years. Tho faA'or accorded it 

is .instilled by ji eidloction of 
(liiiiliticH which seiMn to make the raei^ the most advant;i- 
geous of all, in i\w ordinary conditions of tlie enltnicof 
onr conntry. In fact it nnites gro.'it vigor, which admits 
of its yielding 28 to ;{() tons por acre, with a. generally 
n^gnlar lorm anil a very satisfactory richness, which varies 
fiom 1(1 to i;t por con(. of sngar; it is at the same time 
ciipable of easy pr(^servation. Tim foliage is vigonnis and 
abnndant, an<l tho toi) protrudes slightly from the ground 
in such !(, way as to facilitate imlling without diminishing 
tlio saccharine (iii.'ility of tho roo(. Tlni largest yieldN per 
aero we liav(< over known have been obtained with this 
variety. Wo have known a produclion of 'y\,W> tons of 
sugar per acre. 

" The i/rail toji bc(^(r or (ht> p'tiihinh (jraii boot of tlic Norlli 
( l''ig. U), is of all others tln^ most perfect as (o (orni and tlM> most productive. It has 
bnt fow loaves, and vory mvirly one fourth the length of the root is iibovcN ground. 
This part is gray, greenish, or brown; is eh<iiii an<l smooth like the lturi(<d portiou, 
which is nMutM)r less pink. On the other hand it is the least rich of all tho sngar boots, 
and is at present almost universally jtrosoribod by manufaoturors. Wo boliovo tho 
senlenoo rather .severe, because tho gray-top boot is capable of giving, by moans of a 
Huilablo culture, yields of sugar por aero w^hich rival those of other races, an<l wo 
bclicuo it nniy be snlliciently improved with regard to (he richimss without losing 
its (|ualitiesof (orui and volume 

" Th(> white improved Vilmorin beet (Fig. ('») d(>se(Mided <lirectl^V fromtho wliite Hj- 




l''ll!. ;i.— <!lV('II (OJI I'.I'OI.. 




Kio. I. — Pink top Itcot. 



51 



loHiaii, was broiij^lil. liy Moiis. I>. Vilmoriii, by lucaii.s ofHoIoctioii, to |)r(W(Mit, .'iClor 
sovtniil goiionitioiis, a liclimvss of If) to 18 por cent. olHiigar. This Iuih boon its coiidi- 
tioii lor loiiL^ years, and exporiouco provt^s that it wonhl bo chinKniciil to cMidoavor to 
obtain greater ricliiuiHS; because the plant wouhl then cease to f^ntw with sullicient 
force. EH'orts have tended in these hitler years toward the iniproveuieut of the form 
and increase of the product, and important pro- 
yreas has been realized in this direction, since the 
improved beet, which was represented at the begin- 
ning as giving per acre a product of 8 to 10 tons, 
containing 15 to 1(5 [)er cent, of sugar, bas given in 
late yitilds of 18 to '20 tons per acre with a richness 
in sugar varying from 15 to Id per cent. 

"Tliis lace has always been considered p.articii- 
larly suited to special conditions of culture and 
manufacture which are not those of France; it 
seems to us, however, that, in consoiiueuce of the 
modilicatioMs to which it has been submitted in 
later times, and which liavo increased its volume 
and its yield, it may be adopted in certain cases, 
even iu our country. By 
growing it very closely, the 
inferiority of its volume as 
compared with that of other 
ra<!(!s is iu great part com- 
pensated for, and on tho 
other hand it has been 
proven by numerous anal- 
yses, especially iu the com- 
petitive exliibitionsof beets 
at Arras and Sculis, that this 
race sur})assed all otliers, not 

only in saccharine richness, but also in the purity of its juice, 
which contained less of ashes and salts than that of any other 
variety, an advantage of very great importance. 

"This brinj^s us to tho considonition of tho in- 
ternal structure aud coinpositiou of the beet, which, 
like the external characteristics, may naturally be 
iiKMlilicd by the conditions of culture and nutrition to 
whicli the plant is subjected. 

" The structure of the root bas been tho subject of 
careful study by M. Decaisne, the able director of 
the Department of Vegetable Physiology of the Jar- 
din des Plautes at Paris, and he has made a complete microscopic ex- 
amination and con8e(|U('iit description of the minute anatomy, but in 
this report we shall notice only those physical characters which are 
manifest to ordinary vision, and the relations they bear to the eco- 
nomic value of the root. It is this part of the subject that has been 
worked up by Payen, who called attention to the ajipearaiKie of the 
alt(u?iate oj)a(|ue and trans[)arent bands when the root is sliced in 
the direction of its longer axis, and of similar /ones wIkmi cut in tho 
direction of its shorter axis. Of these, he shows that the former or 





Fig. 5. — (Jriiy-top Bt^nt. 



Fk;. f).— vniiiorin's Im- 
inovcd lindt. 



52 

opaque zones are the richer in sugar, aud in bis memoir on this subject 
be says : * 

" If a root be cut iu the direction of its length and througli its center, it shows the 
section represented in Fig. 7. b b h are tlie parts containing the sugar. They are 
distinguished by their more decided white appearance ; all the tissue which separates 
them is grayish, and contains little or no sugar. This is proven by chemical tests, by 
cupric liquor among others, or even simply by the taste. 

"Champion and Pellet state! that — 

" If very thin slices of pink beets be used, after a few minutes' exposure to the air, 
the zones pointed out by Payen may each be subdivided into two different zones, !«ep- 
ara'ed from each other by a series of black points (tubes) distributed in the form of 
circles, and seeming to correspond with the leaves. 

" The structure would then be as follows : 1, opaque zone; 2, trans- 
parent zone ; 3, opaque zone ; 4, zones of vascular tissue. 

"The formation of these zones seems to be in some way allied to tlie 
jyroduction of leaves, as well as the increased proportion of sugar (Con- 
tained iu them, for Bretscbneider noticed a relation between the number 
of leaves and of the concentric layers, and Gaudichaud found that ' the 
leaves of beets correspond directly with the difierent zones of vessels iu 
the roots iu such a way that the appearance of new leaves should ahvay.s 
give rise to new zones of vessels;' while iu connection with the above 
facts Champion and Pellet give the following figures, showing the rela- 
tion between the percentage of sugar in the juice, the number of leaves 
on the plant, and the number of zones in the root : 



Seed used. 



Sugar per 
cent, per 
volume. 



Vilnjorin seed 

Oidiuarv seed of the factories. 



15.7 
14.8 
13.8 
12.2 
11.5 



Number 
of leaves 
on root. 



Nmiilier 
of zones. 



" Payen's notions found support in the results of examinations of the 
parts made by Joulie, Violette, and others. NotNvithstauding the earlier 
statements of Violette, ho has published results of analyses showing 
that the percentage of sugar in the several parts varies inversely with 
the distance of the part from the longitudinal axis, and that the higher 
percentage is found iu the opaque zones. Thus the same beet gave the 
following figures : 



Translucid zones. 



Opaque zones. 




* Comptes rendus, xxiv, 909. Quoted in Trait^de la Fabrication du Sucre, by E. J. 
Mauinen^, t. I. 
t La Bettrave a Sucre, p. 58. 



53 

" In his earlier work, Violette found little difference in the quantity of 
sugar present in the two kinds of tissue, but the notions then obtained 
from it with reference to the location of albuminoids and salts have re- 




FiG. 7. — Vertical sectiou of beet root to show anatomical structure. 



ceived full confirmation in his own later work and in that of Professor 
Joulie. Thus, he stated— 

The former (thetranslucid zone) appears to contain the higher proportion of mineral 
matters. The proportion of chlorides may be eight times as great ; organic, nitric, and 
phosphoric acids are about equivalent, but sulphuric acid is much more abundant in the 
sacchariferous tissue, probably on account of the predominance of the albuminoids. 



54 

The distribution of the albuminous matteis and salts is .shown in tlic. 
following statement giving the composition of the translneid aiid opacjiie 
zones : 



Zones. 


Sugar. 


Ash. 


Saline 
quotient. 


Nitrogen of 
normal mat- 
ter. 


Nitrogenous 
matters of 
normal mat- 
ters. 


Nitrogenous 
matters per 
100 of sugar. 


Opacjuo zones 


11.27 
10.00 


0. C3 
0.81 


5. 5 
8.4 


Per cent. 
0. 263 
0.230 


Per cent. 
1.643 
1.430 


14 5 


Traualucid zones 


14 3 







Violette also found a higher percentage of sugar in the lower portions 
than in the upper portions of the root, and Joulio found that the tops 
contained less of nitrogen than the lower extremities. Thus Yiolette, 
cutting the root in several slices, beginning at the top, found them to 
contain, respectively, of sugar the following percentages: 

Per cent, of sugar. 

First slice 10.42 

Socoiifl slice 10. 54 

Third slice 10.70 

Fonrtli slice 10. 80 

Firtb slice 10.94 

Sixth slice , 11.11 

Seventh slice 1 1 . !13 

And Joulie found : ^"i" ^ ^"t- of nitrogen 

in normal matter. 

Tops 0.30 0.295 

Extremities of roots 0. 'X^ 0. 260 

The relation between the nitrogen and the sugar content of beets has 
been completely confirmed by the further results obtained by Professor 
Joulie in the analysis of beets grown under different conditions, as 
illustrated in the following table: 



From plotH having received no nitrogen 



Plots having received 57 ponnds nitrogen per acre \ 

[ 



Kichnoss of 

beets in 

sugar. 



12. 55 

13. 58 
1.5. 24 
11.00 

11. 59 

12. 97 
14.98 



Nitrogen in 
beets. 



Per cent. 

0. 204 
0. 308 
0. 51.% 
0. Ht>2 
0. 387 
0. 429 
0. 472 



55 

" This relation exists not only in the strncture of the root, but also in 
the juice after its extraction. 

Relation between content of nitrogen in the beets and i)i the juice. 



Sugar in 
beet. 


rarta of 

sugar in 100 

of juice. 


Part.sof 

nitroccn for 100 

of beets. 


1 
P.irt.i of i Kilrngenona 
nitrocrcn for 100 ; matters for 100 
of juice. ] of juice. 


Per cent. 
14.4 
13.9 
13.9 
12.4 
11.0 
10.4 
9.7 


16.0 
15.5 
15.5 
13.7 
12.2 
11. .1 
]0.5 


0,45 
0.37 
0.45 
0.30 
0.30 
0.10 
0.17 






0.29 
0.21 
0.24 


1.88 
1.33 
1.56 






0.12 


6.78 



" Or, calculated for 100 of sugar contained in root or juice 





Sugar per 100 grams of root. 


Nitrogen per 

100 grams sugar 

in root. 


Part.s sugar 

per 100 of 

juico. 


Parts nitrogen 

per 100 Hugar in 

state of juice. 


13.9 


2.0 
2.9 
2.4 
1.7 


15.5 
15.5 
13.7 
10.5 


1 8 


]3 9 


1.3 
1.6 
1.1 


12.4 


9.7 





" The mineral matters, it appears from the above analyses by Violette, 
exist in larger quantities in those portions of the root which contain the 
higher percentages of sugar, but this relation does not appear to hold 
for entire roots — that is, comparative estimations of sugar and ash in 
different roots does not seem to establish a lower percentage of ash in 
roots containing tolerably high percentages of sugar, and that for roots 
varying in saccharine richness of from 10 to 14 per cent, the proportion 
of mineral matters present will not vary widely from 0.90 per cent., and 
this view is supported by the figures given by Champion and Pellet.* 







Relation of 


Sugar in beet. 


Ash in beet. 


ash to sugar, 
100 to— 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 




14.4 


1.05 


7.2 


13. (J 


1.13 


8.2 


13.3 


0.95 


7.1 


13.1 


0.93 


7.2 


12.7 


1.06 


8.2 


12.0 


0.94 


7.8 


11.8 


0.90 


7.6 


11.2 


(1. 93 


8.2 


11.0 


0.77 


7.0 


10.6 


1.10 


8.1 


10.4 
Average ... . 


0.74 


7.1 


7.6 



La Bettrave h Sucre. 



6G 

" But this latter relation will not hold good for the juice afier extrac- 
tion, as ai)])ears from the following table: 



Richness of 
juice. 


Ash per 100 

volumes of 

juico. 


Ash compared 

with 100 of 

sufcar or saline 

quotient. 


16.2 


0.78 


4.7 


U.9 


0.81 


4.8 


14.7 


0. 73 


5.3 


14.2 


0.78 


,5.4 


13.4 


0.77 


5.9 


13.2 


0.75 


G. 2 


12.5 


0.77 


6.1 


12.2 


0.79 


6.1 


. 11.8 


0.70 


6.5 


11.7 


0.79 


6.8 


11.5 


0.80 


6.9 


10.7 


0.73 


12. 3 


9.9 


0.72 


14.5 


9.7 


0.71 


15.6 


8.0 


0.76 


12.2 



"This question of the mineral constituents of the root, and the influ- 
ence they exert upon the production of sugar and its extraction from 
the root, is an exceedingly important one and merits careful study. In 
this report it will be further discussed in the consideration of the fertil- 
izers suitable to the crop, and the time and manner of their application. 
It is, however, proper to state further here, that, of the mineral matters 
present in the root, phosphoric acid and the alkalies, which are the most 
important mineral constituents of artificial fertilizers, that have the most 
beneficial influence upon the value of the crop, seem in the root to vary 
with the richness in sugar, the phosphoric acid increasing with an in- 
crease of the sugar content, and the alkalies decreasing under like con- 
ditions. These facts are fully established in the results of the researches 
of Professor Joulie, shown below: 



No. 1. Plotliavin^ roceiv(Hl uo phosphoric acid . 



No. 2. I'lot liaving received, per acre, 58 pounds phosphoric acid . -l 

I 
No. 3. Ph>t liavin;; received 116 pounds pho.sphoric acid jier aero. . - < 



Sugar in root. 



Per cent. 
12:97 
13.01 
14. 98 
11. OG 
U. 45 
11.59 
• 12. .52 
11.00 
13. 24 



Phosplioric 

acid in normal 

matter. 



Per cent. 
0.042 
0. 039 
0. 054 
0. 042 
0.048 
0.060 
0.071 
0. 053 
0.086 



Plots having received no alkalies 

Plots having received 150 pounds of .'ilkalies per acre , 



Sugar in root. 



Per cent. 
13. 58 
14.98 
1.5.24 
11.45 
11.54 
13.11 



Potash and 

soda in normal 

matter 



Per cent. 
0.640 
0.415 
0.385 
0.494 
0.480 
0. 291 



57 

" But the quantities of alkalies absorbed by tbe root seem never to ex. 
ceed a certain limit, as shown by Peligot, Corenwinder, Pagnoul, and 
Leloup, and it is by no means proportional to the quantities supplied by 
the soil, and the quantity of sulphuric acid necessary to saturate or 
combine with the alkalies contained in the ashes of beets will not vary 
much from 58.5 per cent, their weight. This latter relation has been 
fully established by the work of Dubrunfaut, Corinwinder, Eagot, 
Champion and Pellet, and others. 

" Not only is the quantity of alkalies that may be absorbed by beets 
thus limited, but Champion and Pellet have found that the alkalies and 
alkaline earths, in the absence of those best suited to the plant, may 
substitute each other in the proportion of their respective chemical 
equivalents; a fact of importance in the study of the chemistry of soils 
and fertilizers. 

" Of all the qualities of the root, there is none that would afibrd as 
ready and easily applicable a means of separating beets of different 
quality as the density", and this has long been and still is considered by 
many growers a, strong indication of the saccharine value, but the best 
authorities seem to consider it a doubtful one. Dubrunfaut finds this 
relation to be materially modified by the presence of air or gases in the 
root. This view is also held by Chami)oimois, who, in examining roots 
produced in the campaign of 1874 to 1875, found that a beet having a 
density of 1.010 may give a juice having a density of 1.050. The figures 
given by Champion and Pellet are also adverse to the idea. Examina- 
tion of twelve beets gave the following: 



Four samples 
Two aaiujiles 
Two saiiiiilcs 
One sample . . 
Two sainples 
O.iB sample .. 



Density of 


Density of 


roots. 


juice. 


1.012 


1.043 


1.02.) 


1.048 


1. O.'G 


1. 0.52 


i.(i:ii 


1. or,o 


].(>;;:! 


1.0)8 


1. o:j8 


1.052 



'' Other tests gave 



Density of 
root. 


Den.sity of 
juice. 


.Sugar in Juice. 


1.03.'!— 1.030 

1.025 

1.025 


1.058 
1.056 
1.052 


Pel- cent. 
11.7 
12. 2 
11.3 



"Having now studied the internal structure and characters of the 
beet and the conditions residing within the root itself, we come to the 
consideration of the juice, the quantity that may be extracted, and its 
composition and value. 1 do not propose to discuss the complete analy- 
ses of the juices, but to call attention to some of the later facts that 



58 

have been worked out concerning tlic qnalities whicli may affect the 
value or may aid in determining it. We have seen above that' the depo- 
sition of sugar in the roots is almost always accompanied by a propor- 
tional deposition of albuminoids and salts, and also that the relation 
found to exist in the root is continued in the juice after extraction. 
These conditions have an influence upon the separation of the sugar 
which the experience of the manufacturer has taught him is unfavora- 
ble, and they will be called up again in the treatment of the subject of 
manufacturing processes, but in the present section we desire to call 
attention more particularly to the quantity of juice that may be ex- 
tracted, the conditions which may modify it, and the density of the 
juice as influenced by the proportion of sugar present. 

" We now come to the methods of selecting seed and seed-bearers, and 
the principles upon which they depend. Of all the experiments and in- 
vestigations in the direction of improvement of this culture, none seem 
to have made such rapid strides in advance as in this line of work, none 
have given results more fruitful and of a character so well suited to 
ameliorate the relations between the producer and manufacturer, and 
at the same time be a source of profit to both. 

"The initiatory steps in this work in France seem to have been taken 
by Mons. Louis Vilmorin, the former head of the great house of Vibnorin- 
Andrieux & Co., of Paris, and his methods of working, followed by sim- 
ilar results, are still being prosecuted with rare intelligence and skill by 
his son and successor, Mons. Henri Yilmorin, whose contributions to our 
knowledge of this and other cultures have done so much to clear up the 
many difiiculties which surround and accompany the profitable manage- 
ment of the several agricultural industries. 

" Of the outward characteristics which aid in determining the richness 
of beets, we have found the most important, as recognized in France, to 
be size and form of the root, its density, the number and appearance of 
the leaves, etc., and all these properties will be mentioned in the general 
rules for selection. But thus fiir wo have fiiiled to notice the external 
and internal characteristics of the seed, which have been found to have 
ah important bearing upon the character and value of the crop ; and, be- 
fore proceeding to the effects of selection in securing desirable crops, we 
shall call attention to the relation of the character and composition 
of the seed upon the quantity and quality of the roots produced from it. 
In this connection we must again refer to the valuable little work of 
Champion and Pellet,in which these authors and investigators take issue 
with, or rather proceed further than, Walkhoff, who advises selection of 
the larger seeds for planting because they give more robust plants. 
This is true as far as it goes, but the authors above mentioned, also find- 
ing the relation of seed to the value of the crop to exist, find further that 
while the larger seeds give roots of larger volume and weight, the smaller 
seeds give smaller roots, which are richer in sugar. Thus taking two 
lots of seeds produced by Simon Legrand, one lot having an average 



59 

weight of 3.2 grains per 100 seeds taken, ami another lot having au 
average weight of 4.25 gram i)er 100 seeds, the determination of the 
weight of the roots produced and their saccharine richness gave the fol- 
lowing results : 



Dates. 



One largo seed : 

August 11 ... 

August 20 . . . 

August 31 ... 

September 16 
Two small seeds : 

August 11 ... 

August 20 ... 

August 31 ... 

September 16 



Average 
weight of 
four roots. 



Gramg. 

66 

75 

125 

375 

30 

50 

75 

233 



Sugar in 
roots. 



Per cent. 



11.4 

"ii."8 



12.0 
'i2.'5 



" Dubrunfant is of the opinion that seeds having the highest specific 
gravity are more suitable for planting than those of lower density. He 
effects a separation by placing the seeds in water and after a time re- 
moving those which float, preserving those which sink to the bottom of 
the containing vessel. He states that the two qualities of seed behave 
quite differently both in germination and during growth. Champion 
and Pellet* quote Basset assaying, ' It is well to do the same for seeds 
as is done for roots for reproduction, and choose the heavier ones, or 
those that fall to the bottom of a bath prepared with water and salt.' 

"The chemical composition of the seed has also been the subject of 
study by difierent chemists. 

"Dubrunfant,t by a chemical examination of the seeds taken from a 
crop of 30 acres of sugar and forage beets, and furnished him by the 
house of Vilmorin- Audrieux & Co., in Paris, found that the seeds of the 
sugar yielding races give upon incineration a smaller weight of ash than 
the forage races, and the differences, which var^^ within certain limits, 
are all, with few exceptions, in the same direction. Co,mparing weights 
of seed taken and ashes produced, the proportion for the sugar-forming 
races varies between 4.50 and G.50 per cent. The forage races give from 
6 to 14 per cent., making an average of 7 to 8, which is very different 
from the j^roportion given by sugar-yielding races. 

"It also appears that the ash of the sugar-forming races is richer in 
l)hosphoric acid, potash, and even magnesia. Thus tlie seeds of the 
sugar races give 0.004 to 0.008 per cent, of their weight of phosphoric 
acid, while the seeds of forage beeta gives but 0.0002 to 0.0005 per cent. 
A similar relation exists for the potash. Thus for the sugar races a 
sufficient quantity is always present to develop a green color with the 
manganese in the ash by fusion, while in the forage races this is not the 
case. But if to the ash of the latter a small quantity of potash be 



La Bettrave :\ Sucre, p. 29. 



t La Sucrerie Indigeno, xiii, 428. 



60 

added, the characteristic green coloration produced by maugauese is 
readily developed by the application of heat. 

"The conclusions. of Dubruufaut confirm the results of the analyses 
of Pellet.* 

Per cent of 
asli ill dry matter. 

Vilmorin seed (average) (5.0 

Sugar beets 7.4 

Forage beets H. 

" The results of the chemical analyses of the ashes are as follows : 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Siilpb uric acid 

(Jhloriuo 

I'liosplioric acid 

Silica 

Oxide of iron 

Maugaiieso 

Total : 

Uoductioii of oxygcu for chlorine 



Ordinary seed of 
the sugar factory. 



No. 1. 



21.1 
8.9 

25.4 

la. 5 
4.0 
4.7 
8.4 

13.4 
1.2 
0.7 



101.3 
1.3 



No. 2. 



1G.4 
10.4 
20.2 
11.5 
2. H 
4.1 

y.3 



2U.4 



101.1 
1.1 



Inipiovcd 

Vilinnrin 

Seed. 



21.2 
12.8 
17.2 
10. 1 
•i.3 
4 1 
17.4 



11.0 



lul. 1 

1. 1 



" On the other hand, seeds of rich beets contain a higher proi)ortion 
of nitrogen than seed s of poorer beets, and at the same time small seeds 
contain more nitrogen than large ones, as is evidenced by the following 
results of examinations by Champion and Pellet : 



Vilmorin seed. 



Large .seeds 

Small seeds 

BUGAK liEET. 

Average of the varieties : 
Gray top, greeutop, largo 

seeds 

German, acclimated, 

pink top, small seeds . . 

FORAGE BEETS. 

Ox-Lorn, German yellow, 
large seeds 

Pink field, rod globe, small 
seeds 



Wciaht 
of 100 
.seeds. 



Grams. 
4. 130 
0.546 



4.745 
0.777 



4.647 
0. 560 



Water 
in nor- 
mal 
matter 



Per 

cent. 
10.9 
11.0 



12.2 
11.2 



12.5 
11.4 



Nitro- 



gen in 
lormal 
matter. 



Ash in ! Nitro- 



,„i normal gen dry 

normal ,. », 

matter, matter. 



Per 

cent. 
2.66 
3.07 



2.40 
2.80 



2.38 
2.55 



Per 
cent. 
5.4 
J>.3 



0.5 
8.2 



7.0 
9.0 



Per 
cent. 
2.98 
3.44 



2.80 
3. If 



2.74 
2.87 



Ashes 
in dry 
matter. 



Per 
ceyit. 
6.061 
5.95 



Nitro- 
genous 
m.atter 
in dry 
mate- 
rial. 



Per 

cent. 

8.6 

21.5 



16.8 
19.68 



14.87 
15.93 



Alkali- 
nity of 
ash ex- 
pressed 
in SO- 
UO. 



14.9 
13.1 



13.6 
12.4 



Aver 
age su 
gar ii' 
l)eets. 



Per 

cent. 



* La Bettrave d Sucre, p. 31. 



61 

" These relations between the richness of the beet and the composition 
and size of the seeds, furnish the bases of ready and valuable means of 
selecting the good and separating them from the worthless. The method 
recommended is to pass them over a screen with meshes of a given diam- 
eter, which unfortunately has never been determined, or at least stated, 
and to throw those which pass through in water or a solution of salt, 
rejecting those which float. Those which sink combine the valuable 
properties above described, of small size and high specific gravity. In 
the processes of selection as applied to choice of beets for production of 
seed, which really constitutes the production of new races, the end 
really to be attained is the ultimate development of a race, or of races, 
which will at the same time satisfy the demands of the producer and 
the manufacturer; that is, that will give a large yield to respond to the 
demands of the former, combined with goi^d quality and high richness 
in sugar to respond to the demands of the latter. In the opinion of 
some of those who have devoted themselves to this work, the hope of a 
result such as we have described must be considered almost useless, if 
we depend npon the root and its characteristics, but much valuable as- 
sistance may be rendered in the attainment of this end, as we shall see 
later on, by the intelligent application of fertilizers to the crop and the 
methods of culture adopted and employed. 

" In the earlier experiments in this line, those of Mons. L. Vilmorin, 
attention was more especially directed to the production of very rich 
beets, with no particular care to the size, the desire being rather to ob- 
tain beets of small size, with tapering form and smooth surface : but the 
liite work of all engaged in this kind of experiment and research has 
been directed to the enrichment of races giving roots of larger volume 
and fuller form, making them better iidapted to all soils and nil methods 
of culture. In most cases, therefore, the work starts from the races 
most extensively grown. 

" Vilmorin began his work by following the method employed in Ger- 
many of taking the specific gravity of the roots by plunging them in 
saline solutions of known density, but he soon found that, in conse- 
quence of the almost constant presence of an internal cavity, this method 
was inexact. 

" Dubrunfaut further explains the cause of the inaccuracy of this 
method in the fact of the existence of air and gases within the body of 
the root. Vilmorin therefore resorted to the method of taking from the 
center of the root under examination a cylindrical portion by means of 
a cutting tube, and determining the density of the i^ortion thus ob- 
tained, in solutions of sugarof known specific gravity, butthese solutions 
were discarded on account of their unstable character, and similar solu- 
tions of salt substituted. But the loss of sugar in the sample by osmo- 
sis when immersed in the saline solutions renders this mode of procedure 
also unsuited to the attainment of the end in view, and he finally turned 
to the determination of the density of tlie juice itself as the readiest and 



62 

most exact ineaus of detcrmiuing tlie sii^^ar content of the sample. The 
sample removed from the beet, furnished on grating and pressing suf- 
ficient of juice to admit of taking the weight of a metallic cube of known 
dimensions immersed in it, from which tbe density of the juice could 
readily be calculated. This method of determination he found to give 
more accurate results than any other when working upon so small a 
quantity of material. 

" It is useless to add [he says in his paper read before the Academy of Sciences in 
November, Iti^iG] that the temperature taken by means of a thermometer with tenths 
of degrees is carried on the register after each weight of the ingot, and that the gauge 
of the vases, the fineness of the suspending thread, and the identity of all the con- 
ditions of the operation eliminates errors which at lirstiiroduced certain irregularities 
in the manner of working. 

" Having thus determined the specific gravity of thejuices of the vari- 
ous beets under examination, those considered worthy of propagation 
are preserved and the others rejected. The surfaces of the wounds pro- 
duced in the beets examined by the removal of the sample are covered 
with charcoal dust, which effectually prevents any decay or deteriora- 
tion in consequence of the treatment to which the roots have been sub- 
mitted. 

" This method was employed in the development of the race of beets 
known as Vilmorin's Improved, and it is this method or modifications 
of it, or some additional operations carried on in connection with it, that 
is employed today by the most intelligent and responsible producers 
of improved seed in France. 

" Mr. Henri Vilmorin, who has succeeded his father in the work, com- 
bines the method with examination of tiie sample of juice, after the de- 
termination of its specific gravity, by means of the polariscope, while 
others emi)loy, as supplementary to the method, estimation of the sugar 
by means of the copper test. 

"But notwithstanding the unfavorable conclusions concerning tlie 
method of selection, based ui)on the density of the roots as determined 
by immersing them in solutions of molasses or salt of differing but 
known strengths, it is still used by many of the leading seed-growers in 
the north of France. M. Demiatte, in an article on the subject of selec- 
tion of seed-bearers, states* that he proceeds as follows, according to 
Brabant's method: Select subjects weighing at least 700 grams (li 
pounds). For determination of their density they are thrown into a 
vat partly filled with a solution of molasses, having a density of 2.5 de- 
grees by the densimeter ; those roots which float are rejected ; those 
which partly sink are preserved for the production of seed called No. 3. 
Those which sink completely are thrown into a second vat containing a 
solution similar to that just described, but having a density of 3.5 de- 
grees. Those which float here are preserved for production of seed 
known as No. 2. Those which sink to the bottom are of course of the 
best quality, and are used for production of seed No. 1. 

* Journal 4e8 Fabricauts (J«> Sucre, 1879, Februarjr 19, 



63 

" We have seeu that the generally adopted opiuion conceruing the 
best form of beet to be choseu for production of high yields of sugar is to 
the effect that the long tapering ones are the most valuable ; but this 
opinion is likely to be subject to modification in consequence of the re- 
sults of later observations upon the constitution of the improved varie- 
ties and their power to resist the deteriorating influences to which they 
may be subject in the varying conditions of soil and culture. The taper- 
ing, richer, improved races, descended from German stock, have been 
found more subject to disease in France than the poorer races of the 
country, and M. Decrombecque, at Lens, conceived the idea of incorpo- 
rating within the latter the sugar producing-qualities of the former,and 
at the same time retaining the hardiness for which the commoner races 
are well known. To attain this end he had recourse to the method sug- 
gested by Walkhoff,* who believed that the saccharine richness of beets 
may be improved by crossing, and who was able by using seeds of 
Frickenhouse, and the method referred to, to obtain beets the juice of 
which marked 18.8 degrees, Balling, and containing 1G.5 per cent, of 
sugar, starting with varieties the juice of which showed but 17.8 de- 
grees, Balling, and containing 10.35 per cent, of sugar. In planting, 
the roots were placed in close contact so that the blossoms touched 
each other, and the slightest agitation was sufficient toefl;ect the trans- 
port of pollen. 

" But the results of the experiments" and of the practice adopted by 
Mons. Decombrecque t are rather more striking than those obtained by 
Walkhoff. He noticed when he began his work at Lens that the Sile 
sian beet grown upon a rather shallow soil, and especially when manured 
with stable manure containing considerable straw, in the spring (well 
known to be a bad and injurious practice), was hairy, fusiform, and 
wanting in weight. At the same time the white beet of the country, 
with green top, gray flesh, and obtuse form, flourished and developed 
well, though remaining pyriform in the same field in which theSilesian 
fared badly. The question was to produce a beet having the hardiness 
of the one and the richness of the other. He chose from his crop the 
best formed, richest subjects, of size above the average, well covered in 
the ground, and then, observing the same care, chose specimens of the 
country roots called totipie (about the poorestof all the beets grown), and 
the beets thus chosen he preserved for seed. In planting he combined 
them in the proportion of five plants of the Silesian with one of toitpie. 
In collecting the seed he carefully preserved separately that from the 
Silesian varieties and that from the toupie, and in subsequent sowing 
used only that from the Silesian. He found that the character of the 
Silesian beet had changed, and that the beet had the obtuse torm. How- 
ever, after the third year of planting the modified seed, he found that 
the good qualities of the Silesian had disappeared, and he had only the 
low-grade beet of the country. His subsequent practice, therefore, was 

• §ee La l^^ttr(iv<i ^ 9mre, par Cbampiou ?iu4 Pejlet- t La sucrerie indigene, xii, 434, 



64 

to f?row two 01 more acres of Silesian, and from tlie crop ])ro(lnce<l to 
select those be needed for seed, and these roots he inixed with roots 
from the ordinary crop in the proportion of 1 to 3, and thus secured 
continuously the hardiness of the one and the richness of the other 
combined. 

"With the indications given by Mous. H. Yilmoriu in his description 
of the leading races of beets grown in France, and the methods described 
in the preceding pages, it will not be difficult for the prospective grower 
to determine the vaiieties that will be best suited to his purposes, or to 
l)roducc new races through which the results he desires may be obtained, 
but it will not be out of place here to call attention to the experiments 
of Mons. DeromeatBavay (IS^ord) made with seeds obtained from various 
producers with a view to the determination of the best varieties for cul- 
tivators to grow in order to secure a crop of quality and quantity to be 
satisfactory both to themselves and the manufacturer. This he con- 
ceives to be a variety that will give the most sugar per acre, in condi- 
tion to be most easily extracted in the greatest weight. Without enter- 
ing into the details of his ex[)erimeuts we shall simply give in the fol- 
lowing table the names of the varieties of seeds sown and the results 
obtained : 



Varieties. 



Long pink toupio 

Silesiiin, pink, t'li.si form 

Silesian, pink, fusilorni 

Sileaian, wliite, first clioice — 
Silesian, white, second choice 
Silesian, white, accliiiiatid . . . 
Silesian, white, accliiuatcd . . . 

White pink top 

White iniprovetl 

White jjreen top 

Pink acclimated 

White sil(>sian 

Pink silesian 

Pink silesian 

Pink Brunswick 



33, 205 

M, 210 
32, 388 
32, 344 
32, 2m 
35, OGO 

34, 656 
37, 627 
32, 751) 
34.210 
31,983 

32, 874 

33, 966 
33, 400 
31.583 



Tons* 
20.1 
18.0 
15.9 
11.9 
16. 
15.9 
14.9 
10.8 
11.4 
15. 3 
13.8 
14.2 
15.1 
17.9 
17.5 



5 

5.70 
6.40 
7.15 
5.95 
6. 10 
6.15 
5. 75 
7.20 
5.9'0 
5.90 
6.10 
6.05 
5.45 
5.40 



Per ct. 
8.431 
10. 766 
12.841 
13. 769 
10.921 
11.473 
11.194 
11.538 
11.368 
10. 912 
10. 736 
11. 126 
10.825 
9.957 
9.709 



■£ P. 
.So 



t^ 



Sugar of 880 ox- 
tractable. 



.a OS 



a ^ 



$4.00 
4.04 
5.64 
6.80 
4.94 
5.16 
5.48 
4.70 
6.92 
4.88 
4.88 
.5.10 
5.08 
4.36 
4.32 



$80. 00 
83.00 
81.00 
78.00 
79.00 
32.00 
65.00 
79.00 
78.00 
73.00 
68.00 
73.00 
79.00 
78.00 
75.00 



Po 



iinds. 
4.69 
6 84 
8.34 
9.27 
6.84 
7.34 
6.97 
6.50 
8.68 
6.89 
6.67 
6.93 
6.69 
6.02 
5.86 



Tons." 
0.94 
1.23 
1.33 
1.07 
1. OJ 
1. l(i 
1.04 
1.09 
0.99 
1.05 
0.92 
1.88 
1.01 
1.08 
1.02 



* Of 2, 200 pounds. 

" He concludes from the figures obtained and here given that the best 
beets to be grown, and which he considers the races of conciliation, are 
those represented by the numbers 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, and 14. If sold 
according to the density of the juice and the scale of values in the form 
of arbitration adopted by the sugar manufacturers at Lille,* the grower 
will receive a higher return per acre than with any of the other varieties 
mentioned. 



See later on jn discussions of relations between the grower £iud manufacturer. 



65 

" 111 tbis connection the results of tlie experiments of Deheraiu are 
relevant and interesting. He says : * 

" It follows from our experiruents and analyses that beets submitted to different 
modes of feeding or fertilizing, preserve in their development the native qtialities of 
the seed, i. e., their race. 

''In several of the experiments, pink tops and improved Vilmorins 
were submitted to exactly the same conditions, same sterile soil, same 
manures given in equal quantities, yet in one case while the pink top 
contained 7.5 per cent, of sugar, the improved beet contained 16.2. In 
another case when the fertilizer was more nitrogenous, the richness of 
the pink-top beet fell to 5.5 per cent, and the Yilmorin to only 13.4. 
This shows clearly the influence of race upon the saccharine quality of 
the beet. The conclusions would appear premature were these experi- 
ments the only evidences to support them, but they are also confirmed 
in the results of experiments made by Mons. H. Vilmorin at Verriers, 
according to Professor Deherain's suggestions. 

With reference to the type of beet to be chosen, Mons. Demiattet 
says : 

" The nature of the soil and method of culture being known, the form should change 
with the nature of the soil ; should bo long and tapering in deep sandy or alluvium 
soils ; short and more obtuse iu shallow soils like that near Arras, where the thick- 
ness of the arable layer will not exceed 6 inches. But whatever be the type chosen 
the top of the mother beet should not protrude from the soil more than one-fourth its 
total length. 

" With the facts and figures presented, which have all been worked out 
ill France by careful experiment and investigation, no further comments 
on the different French races will be necessary. The selection of varie- 
ties for cultivation can best be left to the reader. We believe, however, 
it will be of interest, and we shall, therefore, conclude the consideration 
of this subject by giving the names and addresses of several of the lead- 
ing producers of seed in France who made exhibition of their products 
in the late Paris Exposition of 1878, with short notices of the character 
of their exhibits. 

Besprez pere et Jils, Capelle. — The. varieties produced are Xo. 1, white 
or pink, containing 15 to IS per cent, sugar, requiring deep, rich soil, 
plenty of manure, and excellent culture; yields 16 to 20 tons per acre. 
]^o. 2, white or pink, 12 to 15 per cent, sugar, for ordinary soil, fertil- 
izing, and care ; yields 20 to 25 tons i)er acre. No. 3, 10 to 12 per cent, 
sugar for inferior soils and cultures 5 yields 25 to 30 tons per acre. 

" 8imon-Legrand, Atichij. — Different varieties containing 12 to 20 per 
cent, of sugar; some varieties of special selection containing from 20 
to 23 per cent. 

"jC. Bervaux-Ibled, War ffuies-le- Grand. — Cultivates seed by special 
method of selection depending upon taking specific gravities of cylin- 

* Annales agronomiques. t Journal des Fabricauts de Sucre, February 19, 1879. 
35474— Bull. 27 5 



drical samples cut from the roots and immersing them in saline solutions 
of given strength. 

" Brabant freres Onnaing. — Cultivate seed of special variety bearing 
their name; claimed to produce 21 tons per acre, of beets of average 
richness of 14.88 per cent, of sugar. 

" Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., iVb. 4 Quai de la Megisserie, Paris. — Pro- 
duce seed from five varieties, given iu the table below, showing the in- 
dustrial value of each variety." 



Yield per acre long tons. 

Sugar, per gallon of juice pounds. 

Sugar, per acre do . . . 

Sugar, per long ton of beets 

Approximate industrial yield.. per acre. 



OrePTi toTi ' I'" proved 
^T". P i Vilmorin 



beet. 



33.117 
1.12 
.437 
140.6 
4.468 



beet. 



16. 639 
1.63 
,601 
290.4 
3.095 



French races. 



Pink top. 



30. 121 
1.24 
,754 
182.6 
4.893 



Green top. 



30. 049 
1.20 
8,595 
173.8 
4.739 



German 
race. 



23. 360 
1.30 
7,029 
222.2 
2.308 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SUGAR BEET.* 



" ' The improvement of the sugar-beet' is a term essentially capable of 
great expansion, inasmuch as its significance embraces the bringing 
about of the fullest adaptation of the beet, to the industries of sugar and 
spirit manufactures, and under very varying conditions on the one hand 
of the manufacturing process, and on the other of the operation of the 
tarifilaws. 

" The question, however, may be so far restricted as to consider one of 
two purposes — either, according to the laws of physiology and agri- 
cultural chemistry, and to the observations of practical experience, by 
seeking that process which will yield the greatest amount of sugar per 
acre at a given cost, or by following artificial methods, endeavor by 
obedience to those, to obtain such beets as will give the greatest profit. 
By the adoption of one of those courses beets will be grown best adapted 
to the manufacture of sugar and spirit in France. 

" The improvement of the method of beet-production is not more diffi- 
cult with these roots than iu the examples of other plant kinds; in fact, 
in given respects, it is more simple and stable. It is quite possible to 
establish given properties and specialities in the beet providing those 
properties are not in actual opposition to the nature of the plant, and 
that they are capable of transmission to the following generation. In 
brief, those given specialities and characters are to be secured by selec- 
tion. Nevertheless, not every man will succeed in suoh a course of im- 
provement by selection. It is necessary (1) that the cultivator shall 



*By H. de Vilmorin, Sucrerie Indigene, vol. 34, p. '328, andZeitscb. KUbenzucker- 
Industrie, October, 1889, p. 888, 



67 

have a clear grasp of his purpose, and (2) that he shall be fully cogni- 
zant of the nature of tbe plant and of the conditions of its growth. 

" The first of these conditions is a general one and applies to all ex- 
periments. The second condition, however, requires a knowledge of 
the advantages and disadvantages of the varieties chosen for cultiva- 
tion, and that tbe conditions of growth shall not be artificially intiu- 
euced, or at least not in a way prejudicial to the strengthening of the 
natural proclivities of the i)]ant. The latter condition is of the fix'st 
importance and demands all consideration. The rules for such experi- 
ments in the cultivation may be given as follows : 

" (1) The individual plants which are selected for cultivation must be 
planted under those conditions which allow of the full development of 
the natural merits and demerits of the variety. 

" (2) The experiment plants must, moreover, be grown under the same 
conditions, in respect of the length of the period of growth, the distance 
between the single plants, the properties of the soil and fertilizers ap- 
plied, as the roots grown for the actual making of sugar. 

"In order that the size, form, the sugar-content, and the purity of the 
juices of given varieties may be properly adjudged it is essential that 
the roots shall have been grown under the conditions in which those 
several characteristic features and properties could be normally devel- 
oped. Strange to say, a rule so natural has been consistently ignored, 
and beets have been provided for purposes of the laboratory strongly at 
variance with those requirements. The soil has been very deeply culti- 
vated, and the roots grown in the closest proximity in order to produce 
beets long and thin and free from side roots, and, naturally, rich in 
sugar — a directly opposite procedure were probably the most reason- 
able. 

"As an example of a bad quality may be given the nature of certaiii 
roots, or varieties of roots, to run to seed. Eoots for propagating must 
be selected which are free from this inclination ; and, in order to pro- 
vide a trusliworthy test, the seeding must be made very early which 
thus induces the disposition to ' run.' The plants which do not show 
the 'running' disposition should be selected for further propagation. 

"Another example : How is it possible to sort out the representatives 
of a very fibrous nature when the roots are grown under conditions 
whereby the side roots are not developed ? 

"As the average weight of the roots is a matter of consideration it may 
be observed that both home and foreign seed-growers aim at the pro- 
duction of beets weighing from 600 to 1,200 grams. 

"As the characteristics of beets are several the selection must be spread 
over, and depend upon, certain different observations. The size, form, 
color, leaf growth, the season of growth, as well as the period of 
maturity, are suitable for such observation, and experienced seed- 
growers will be readily able to make their distinctions from the obser- 
vation of tliose several physical pro])erties. The determination of the 



68 

sugar-content and of the purity of the juice depend upon purely 
chemical estimations. The specific gravity of the roots and of root- 
Juices is determined, and the sugar quantity is ascertained by means 
of the polariscope and copper solution. The determination by use of 
the polariscope is to be preferred for the reason that little time is 
required and the purity of the juices is observed by the same process. 

"It is not enough, however, nor is the main purpose accomplished, 
when beets have been secured, rich in sugar, of a pure juice, and possess- 
ing the several physical qualities which have been specified. The 
greater purpose is to distinguish those beets in which the given proper- 
ties and values are fixed, and which are capable of transmitting those 
specialities to successive generations ; in other words— which are true 
in propagation. 

" I have, with great labor and care, endeavored to secure seeds and 
beets with fixed characteristics by planting the seeds of selected repre- 
sentatives and growing those with the single view to the observation of 
their hereditary values. At the end of the year those plants which had 
not preserved the given physical properties were thrown out and the 
' true' beets preserved for propagation. 

" In my opinion, the problem of securing practically the best beet seeds 
is to be attained by observing the following means : 

" (1) The organizing of the production of beets possessing definite and 
fixed properties and specialties by the use of the most rigid system of 
' selection.' 

"(2) A system of cultivation and planting most approved, in view of 
economy, by sound experience. These rules may encounter consider- 
able controversy, but they are resting upon a long personal experience 
and the oi)inions and practices of French and German experts and 
practical men. 

"The growing of seed from small roots — 250 to 400 grams — has no dis- 
advantage in respect of the value of the seed ; nevertheless this will 
only apply in the instance where the practice is not repeated with the 
seed from the same. Seed grown from beets of a large growth can not 
be so economical as from the smaller size, and when the condition at- 
taching to the use of the smaller beets is observed, no disadvantage 
occurs. 

" Amongst the many most excellent kinds of French beets, one in 
special must be mentioned, although I may stand in a close relation to its 
history. The beet was introduced by my father, and I have given all 
possible care and endeavor to increase the form and weight-producing 
quality to the highest degree compatible with a proportional increase 
in the sugar-yielding value of the same. And, in the face of all con- 
troversies, I must maintain that no other system of culture would have 
established and sustained the same excellence of the beet in respect of 
form, weight, and purity of the juice as the system adopted in our ex- 
]periments and specified in the rules already laid dowo. 



69 

"Amongst other Frencli representatives may be mentioned the Bra- 
bant-beet, whose habit of growth is typified by the upright leaf, long, 
thin, and smooth root, and distinguished by its richness in sugar. 
This kind may be classed as one of the best French varieties and dis- 
tinctly differing from the German. 

" Of many excellent German beets which have been introduced into 
France the ' Klein- Wanzlebener' has had an experience of ten years 
in our climate and appears to thrive better even than in its native 
sphere. The variety is known by an abundant leafage of a bright green, 
and broad, multiplied roots. 

" The ^ crossing' of different varieties is a rich source of varying kinds, 
but the course has a fatal effect upon the hereditary principle and 
properties. The characteristics of the ' cross,' which may be the prod- 
uct of a single year, are transient and may be lost in as short a time as 
they require to be produced. 

"I would specially state that the assertions which I have made in 
respect of the best beet kinds are not merely devolving upon my own 
experience, but may be supported by comparison with the statements 
of other exj)erimenters. 

Experiments of M. Dupay in Chervy-Cossigny, given in the year 1888. 



Yield. 



Sugar per 
hectare. 



Average of four French beet cultures . 
Auerage of four German beet cultures. 



Kilograms. 
36. 000 
35. 140 



Kilograms. 
5,665 
5,537 



Experiments of MM. I'orion and De'herain — 1888. 





Yield of 
roots. 


Sugar in 
juice. 


Sugar in 
beet. 


Money 
value. 


French 


Kilograms. 
43. 100 
45. 100 


Per cent. 
16.74 
16.39 


Per cent. 
14.77 
14.50 


Francs. 
1,659 
1,623 







" The yield is in favor of the German, but the money value is greater 
actually in the French. " 

Experiments of the Sugar-House Bourdon (Puy -de-Dome). 





Yield per 
hectare. 


Density of 
juices. 


Sugar per 
hectare. 


French 


Ktlograms. 
44. 854 
40. 296 


o 
7.9 

7.7 


Kilograms. 
7 970 


Oerman 


6,979 





70 



VARIETIES OF BEETS. 

The varieties of beets whicli are cultivated are perhaps more numer- 
ous in name than in distinct qualities. In France the White Improved 
Vilmorin beet is very largely cultivated. Its general type is shown in 
the following figure : 




Fig. 8. — White Improved Vilmorin Sugar Beet. 

This beet has been the result of thirty years of methodic and perse- 
vering selection based upon the lines above indicated. In regard to 
its preservation it is recognized that it holds its sugar content better 
than any other variety. In those factories in which the Improved Vil- 
morin is manufactured in connection with other varieties it is the cus- 
tom to reserve this for the end of the season and to work up the less re- 
liable beets at an earlier date. It is also said to resist better than any 
other variety the unfavorable influence of certain characters of soil and 
of certain manures. In black soils, rich in organic matter, it will give 
great industrial results, while most other varieties of beets become w^a- 
tery or saline in excess. Excessive quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers, 
which are carefully excluded from ordinary varieties, can be applied 
with safety to the Improved Vilmorin. A great number of experiments 
has shown that tliis can be done without serious deterioration in the 
quality of the sugar and with a considerable increase in w^eight. From 
thousands of analyses it has been established that the percentage of 
sugar which can be obtained with this variety is about 16. In regard 
to its yield under favorable conditions it can be stated to be between 
30 and 35 kilograms per hectare. 



71 

Perhaps more important for general cultivation than the Vilmorin 
variety is the beet known as the Klein- Wanzlebeu, which at the pres- 
ent time has probably a wider cultivation than all other sugar-beets. 
The general character of this beet is shown in the figure. 




Fig. 9. — Klein-Wanzlebeu Sugar-beet. 

This beet has a conical root, straight and even, quite large at the head 
and rapidly tapering. It is distinguished from the Improved Vilmorin 
by its brighter color and its lighter-colored leaves, which are beauti- 
fully undulatiug or scalloped about the edges. Coming from a cross in 
which the Improved Vilmorin entered largely, the Klein- Wanzlebeu is 
to-day a fixed variety, and is equally well produced in France and Ger- 
many. It succeeds equally well in soil of an alluvial nature and mean 
richness and on level plateaus. In soils very rich in humus it ripens 
poorly and loses much of its richness. Like the Vilmorin Improved, 
toward the end of vegetation its leaves are completely spread. In those 
conditions of culture where the Improved Vilmorin gives 34,000 to 
36,000 kilograms, the Kleiu-Wanzlebeu will give 40,000 kilograms. It is, 
however, always inferior to the Improved Vilmorin in point of view of 
its saccharine richness, which the whiter and more watery appearance 
of its flesh would make known at first view. Nevertheless from 13 to 
15 per cent, of sugar can be obtained in the beet. 

The Brabant sugar-beet is altogether different in aspect from the pre- 
ceding varieties. It is long, rising well above the level of the soil, car- 
rying a foliage vigorous in growth and upright in position. This vari- 
ety would seem at first view to have come from the white varieties 



72 

used for forage; nevertheless its great vigor, its abundant production 
and its content of sugar sufficiently liigh make it a beet quite valuable 
in those countries where the tax is placed upon the amount of sugar 
made rather than upon the beet. The Brabant Sugar-beet will give 
easily 50,000 kilograms per hectare and may be made to contain 12 per 
cent of sugar. Its general appearance is indicated in the figure. 




Fig. 10.— Brabant Sii;,^ar-l)eet. 



In France the adoption of legislation placing the tax upon the beet 
itself has not entirely banished the Brabant variety, but it has suc- 
ceeded in transforming it into one of greater richness in sugar. This 
variation of the Brabant beet has been called the French Rich Sugar- 
beet, and seems destined to have a brilliant future, preserving in its 
general aspect, and notably in its foliage, many of the characteristics 
of the Brabant. The French Rich Beet differs distinctly from it in the 
fact that it grows entirely nndor the soil, is more slender, with a more 



73 

reddisb skin and more compact flesh. Its yield is superior to the Vil- 
moriu Improved and even to the Klein- Wanzleben, amounting to from 
40,000 to 43,000 kilograms per hectare in good conditions. Its general 
appearance is intHcated in the figure. 

The content of sugar of this new variety is rarely inferior to 14 per 
cent on the weight of the root. 




Fig. 11.— White French Rich Sngar-beet. 

The Imperial sugar-beet is one which is largely grown throughout 
Europe. It has a regular conical outline with a top-shaped top and 
with leaves with rather short stems. There are different varieties, such 
as the Old Imperial, Improved White Imperial, and the Improved Kose 
Imperial. Other varieties which are also grown are the Electoral, the 
Improved Elite, the Imi)roved Imperial Elite, the Imperator, Olive- 
shaped, and the Excelsior. 

Some of the most celebrated firms in Europe producing sugar beet seed 
are Vilmorin-Andrieux «& Co., Maison Simon Legrand, of Paris; Messrs. 



74 

Brumme, of Bernburg, Germany j Dippe Bros., Quedliuburg, Germany; 
Ferdinand Knauer, of Grobers, Germany ; Le Maire fr^re et sceur, 
and Florimond Desprez. 

BEET SEED AMELIORATION. 

For many years past there has been a constant improvement in the 
quality of sugar beets raised in France. While it is true that for more 
than twenty years beets have been grown with high sugar percentages, 
their irregular shapes and special requirements did not bring them 
within the practical demands of farmers. 

The best method of selection is yet an open question, and the seed- 
growers do not all agree as to the most desirable size of the " mother." 
Some use roots weighing about one-fourth pound, and several agrono- 
mists maintain that 2 or even 3 pounds (?) is not too heavy a weight. 
While in the latter case the seeds attain their full development (whether 
this is the case with the smaller types it is difficult to decide), many 
experiments aj)pear to prove that there is very little difference in the 
seed in the two cases. 

Pellet recommends that " mothers •' be planted very close together, 
with the view of preventing any further development of the root, and 
so that the entire vitality of the plant may be expended in this seed 
development. Another argument in favor of very small beets is, that 
there is an economy of space, and the planting may follow on the soil 
that had already yielded a cro}) the same year ; the expenses also are 
less. 

One argument is that the " mothers," with their numerous stalks, 
require room, and hence the importance of roots of a certain size and 
planted at reasonable distances apart. On the other hand, the stalks 
of small beets attain a far greater height, owing to their desire (so to 
speak) to derive from the air the oxygen which close spacing certainly 
keeps out. Again, some assert that with large roots and stalks the 
size of the seed and quality is inferior to that obtained with the smaller 
roots. These facts are mentioned simply to show how very difficult is 
the question of selecting and ameliorating existing varieties of beets. 

Peligot, Leplay, Pellet, etc., have concluded upon some interesting 
facts respecting the requirements and the changes ''mothers" undergo 
during the process of seed formation. The stems, leaves, and seed, yet 
green during July, do not contain sugar in their composition, but the 
sugar of the " mothers " constantly diminishes from the time the second 
growth commences until the seeds are nnitured. The density of the juice 
diminishes in the root and increases in the stalks, then in the leaves. 
Vegetable acids, with potassic or lime base, exist in the juices of the 
root and stalks. 

Respecting the potassic and lime salts, there appears to be an as. 
cending movement between the soil and the stalks, leaves, etc. Car- 
bonic acid in the mean time undergoes the same changes as it does during 
the first year's vegetation. An interesting fact is, that the requirements 



75 

of vegetation for potassic and lime salts during the second year is 
very mncli greater than during the flrst year's growth. These salts 
in combination with vegetable acids, in solution, appear to have im- 
portant influences on the formation and quality of the seed obtained. 

As early as 1850 Yilmorin called attention to the possibility of select- 
ing beets, by depending upon the proportion that exists between the 
density and the sugar percentage. The classification was very simple, 
and consisted in placing the roots in solutions having a specific gravity 
known in advance, prepared with chloride of sodium and water. The 
selection, according to the density of the juice, followed; but while the 
results were more satisfactory than the foregoing, it was faulty, and it 
does not necessarily follow that the richest beets are those having 
juices of the highest specific gravity. The roots resulting from this 
selection were very irregular in shape, and could not be used in the fac- 
tory ; they were also difficult to harvest. 

The size of the neck, shape of the leaves, their abundance, etc., were 
elements to be considered in the outer characteristics of selection. M. 
Desprez's selection has demonstrated that beets which have been selected 
according to analysis will result in seed-yielding beets testing 2 per 
cent more sugar than those which have not been analyzed. Some 
years since it was customary among many seed-growers in France to 
send seed to Germany and receive them back from that country to 
France. The roots raised from those '' mothers " were selected ; a change 
of climate was supposed to have been beneficial. 

Twenty varieties of seed were experimented upon by Desprez ; all had 
been ])roduced upon the farms. It was noticed that beets penetrated 
the soil very much more during a dry than in a wet period. An ab- 
normal number of beets went to seed the first year (42 per cent.) ; this 
means a large amount of sugar ; it is contended, however, by some 
that this loss is never more than 2 per cent. Beets of considerable 
length and having rough skin gave the largest yiehl, and were but little 
affected by insects. The observation^ on influence of distance between 
beets in rows upon the sugar percentage and yield are worth recording. 

It was concluded that upon an average soil there should be culti- 
vated about seven to eight beets per square meter; on well prepared 
soils with suitable fertilizers the number could be twelve to fifteen. 
The spacing between roots should depend upon the soil and fertilizers 
used; selection of the best variety best suited to a given locality also 
depends upon these factors. 

Without doubt the most important beet-seed exhibit at the Paris Ex- 
hibition was that of M. Legrand, who devotes annually 50 to 55 acres to 
seed-raising. Most of this seed is used in the vicinity of his farm and 
the remainder is sold for a nominal sum, considering the quality and 
the pains taken in selection. "Mothers" exhibited were much larger 
than those shown by other exhibitors, and yet the sugar percentage 
was in some cases over 20. An important fact is that in the selection 
no beet is accepted unless it weighs at least one pound. 



76 

The beets are taken from the fiekl by a harvester, with the view of 
avoiding braises which occur witli use of si)a(ie, etc. This work is per- 
formed by the farming hands, who make at once a preliminary classifi- 
cation. Circular piles are formed with leaves outside to protect them 
from any changes in the weather ; but soon as possible these leaves 
are removed and a second and more complete assortment follows ; then 
the roots are placed in small silos. The laboratory selection by the 
Violette method is carried out on a most extended scale, there being 
made 2,500 analyses per diem, and a total of 175,000 during the season 
of 1889. When in 1885 the raising of superior beet seed was deter- 
mined upon, the roots on M. Legrand's farm did not test on an average 
over 11 per cent sugar, and now the standard has reached 16 percent. 

M. II. Sagnier, a well-known agricultural expert, says that during a 
recent visit he found that two fifths of the total roots raised by M. Le- 
grand tested 15 to 17 i)er cent sugar, two-fifths from 17 to 18, and one- 
fifth had a saccharine percentage beyond the latter limit. The richest 
beets are known as " grandmothers," and are used for the production 
of seed which is planted alone for obtaining "mothers;" those of the 
second category are used for the same purpose. The seeds from the 
lateral stalks always give the finest grain. Before the flower appears 
the central and lateral stalks are pinched off, resulting in a greater 
development and vitality of those remaining ; and even before the 
"mothers " are planted the extreme end of their necks are sliced off. 

There can be no doubt of the importance of this extended system of 
analysis, with the view to a scientific selection, as carried on by Legrand. 
A member of the jury at the Paris Exhibition, however, reproached 
the seed-grower in question for the trouble he had taken, as the shapes 
were so regular that outer signs alone would have been sufficient to 
decide the quality. There appears to be no limit of time or amount of 
money that can deter Legrand from obtaining the desired results in beet 
raising; and his methods, while in many respects original, are destined 
to have a great future. 

In discussing the history of the sugar beet it is too frequently asserted 
that the best varieties have a German i^arentage ; we are assured that 
the original types, as adopted by Legrand (who has constantly in mind 
a beet possessing considerable density and yet juicy) has been obtained 
after years of careful selection from " mothers" of French origin entirely. 

On the Carlier farm the " mothers " are taken from the best fields that 
are sown in April, and a cultivator is used four to five times before 
thinning out ; eighteen to twenty beets are grown to a square meter. 
The first selection is made on the field at once after harvesting, the reg- 
ular shape and size, denoting maturity and quality, being the main basis 
for the preliminary selection. The roots chosen are silotted near the lab- 
oratory, and the second selection is made in January; the beets jireferred 
weigh 350 to GOO grams. For many years it was argued that the greater 
the density of the beet the higher its saccharine quality, hence a selec- 
tion oifered no difficulty. Later exi>eriments soon demonstrated that 



77 



such methods were not reliable ; as a preliminary operation, however, 
there can be no reason why baths of salt water or molasses, having a 
known density, could not be used, throwing aside those roots which 
would float in the bath of 1.045 density, and keeping, say, three piles 
from 1.045 to 1.050, from 1.050 to 1.055, and from 1.055 to LOGO. 

The classification as adopted by Carlier, depending upon the density 
of a core taken as a sample from the beet, was not entirely satisfactory ; 
frequently the volume of air, etc., a beet may retain in its composition 
is to be considered. According to Dubrunfaut, beets retain 115 cubic 
centimeters of air per 1,000 grams in weight, and frequently there is, 
owing to this fact, considerable difference between the density of beets, 
considered as a whole, and the juice. At the Wargine-le-Grand farm 
these variations were shown to be : 



Densitv of 


Density of 


entire beet. 


juice. 


1.012 


1.043 


1. 020 


1.048 


1.025 


1. 0.52 


1. 025 


1.056 


1. 030 


1.058 


1.038 


1. 052 



This fact alone would condemn any method of solution depending 
upon density. 

In the Lemaire system of selection roots weighing 600 to 800 grams 
have preference ; such as remain well under ground, and having a 
special depression on both sides, commencing with the neck and end- 
ing with the tip end. Legrand, Lemaire, and others attach considerable 
importance to these outer characteristics, and many maintain that the 
more pronounced they are the higher will be the saccharine quality of 
the root. 

Lemaire and others also maintain that their careful selection by outer 
signs, combined with chemical analysis, has enabled them to create new 
types ; in fact, most seed-growers may claim that their special varieties 
have been " creations." The beets in the latter case are placed in silos, 
where they remain until February or March. The experimenters last 
named and others consider it a mistake to commence analysis sooner, 
as there would be no certainty as to the jireservation of the roots, a 
quality as essential as the sugar percentage. The one without the 
other has but little importance, as they both may be transmitted to their 
descendants. 

When we consider that beets must be kept in silos frequently four 
to five months before being used at the factory, the element of preser- 
vation becomes of the first importance. Those roots which have under- 
gone little or no change in their saccharine percentage during the sev- 
eral months of preservation are selected, and there is very little doubt 
that just as their conservation was satisfactory so will be the beets 
raised from the seed they furnish, 



78 

M. Lemaire informs the writer that experiments were made with seed 
from beets having lost in sugar during their silotting and were com- 
l)ared with seed from those that retained their sugar percentage. The 
conclusion was just as expected ; the roots from seed that kept well had 
a higher sugar })ercentage than others. The hereditary quality of beets 
should be constantly borne in mind in these selections and'ameliorations. 

M. Lemaire also states that all analyses made by the copper test are 
repeated with the jiolariscope, and in most cases their seed give roots 
with a high coefficient of purity. The "mothers" when planted are 
placed at distances of GO to 70 centimeters. About one mouth before 
maturing the tops of the highest stalks are cut oflf so as to permit the 
sap to center itself upon the seed. Laurent-Mouchon has had some 
little reputation of late years, his beets being of a satisfactory quality. 
Their selection does not difler from that above mentioned. 

To give some idea of the impoi tance of growing forms of seed as above 
described, we may mention that the Legrand estate at Besny has over 
200 acres plante<l in beets for the factory at Loan, the yield averaging 
10 to 1-i tons to the acre, and roots testing from 12 to 10 per cent sugar. 
About 55 acres n re devoted to seed-raising; 3,000 roots {" mothers") 
are planted to t he acre. In the Desprez seed producing farm wheat 
follows the production of "mothers" iu rotation; barn-yard manure, 
rags, etc., are also used to the value of $10 to $130 per hectare. It is 
considered that the " mothers" absorb two-thirds of the fertilizers, the 
other one-third remaining for the wheat. Of the farming lands two- 
fifths are devoted to beet seed cultivation, two-fifths to wheat, and one- 
fifth to beets, flax, etc. All soils used for beet cultivation are worked 
to a depth of 35 centimeters. Soils intended for the "mothers" are 
worked in two o]>erations, about 20 centimeters in depth in the fall and 
the remainder in the spring, so as to plow under the fertilizer. 

The "mothers" when growing have the cultivator passed between 
the rows four or five times. The area under cultivation at Orchies is 
432 hectares, of which 150 hectares are under Carlier's direct supervis- 
ion, 54 hectares in " mothers" for seed, and 30 hectares in beets of in- 
ferior quality intended for cattle feeding. Efforts are made to keep 
these separate so that there will not be hybrids formed by the combina- 
tion of their pollen. The Lemaire plantation at ISTomaiu consists of 275 
hectares, in five farms, on each of which a special variety of seed is pro- 
duced. Besides this 400 hectares of beets are controlled for an agricult- 
ural distillery. The annual production here is estimated at 500,000 to 
600,000 kilograms of beet-seed.— (The Sugar Beet, vol. 10, No. 4, 1880.) 

SOIL, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

Land which is to be planted with beets, if manured with farm-yard 
manure, should have this coating applied in a well-rotted state in the 
autumn and plowed in to the depth of 5 or 6 inches. In the spring the 



79 

soil should be plowed to a greater depth, from 8 to 10 inches, and if the 
subsoil be at all hard a subsoil-plow should follow, loosening the sub- 
soil to the depth of 12 to 15 inches. The surface of the soil is then re- 
duced to the proper tilth by harrowing, and, if necessary, rolling to 
break up the clods. It should not be forgotten that much of the culti- 
vation of the beet may be accomplished in this way before planting and 
the process of seeding should not begin until the surface of the soil is 
in the perfect condition mentioned above. Care should be taken not to 
apply fresh or unrotted stable manure, or any other manure containing 
large quantities of undecomposed organic matter, to a field seeded to 
beets except in the manner described above. 

It is scarcely necessary to add that care must be taken in plowing 
the soil to have it in the proper condition of moisture, since, if plowed 
too wet, it is likely to bake, and if too dry clods may be formed which 
will be difficult to reduce to the proper state of tilth. A field prepared as 
above will afford the beet opportunity for growth downward, thus pre- 
venting its beiug projected above the surface of the soil. It will also 
guard the beet against the dangers of excessive moisture or drought, as 
stated above. 

^ SEEDING. 

In small plots the beet seed can be placed in the soil by hand. For 
large fields drills are provided which are built to operate precisely on 
the principles of ordinary grain-drills, the opening for the seed made to 
correspond to the size of the beet seed. Simple drills may be used or 
comj)ound drills for planting the seed and distributing fertilizers at the 
same time, such as are used in sowing wheat and other cereals. A con- 
venient drill for this purpose is represented in Fig. 12, the Planet, Jr., 
No. 2 seed drill, made by S. L. Allen & Co., Philadelphia. 

Distance of rotes. — No definite rule 
can be given for the space between 
the rows of beets. In an ordinary 
soil this space should be about 18 
inches. In very fertile soil the rows 
should be placed closer together, in a 
less fertile soil farther apart. 

The distance at which the beets 
should be placed from each other in «^^:sr - ^^T?,^;— ==- 
the rows also varies according to fig. 12. 

the nature of the soil and climatic 

conditions. In general, it may be said that there should be one plant 
for each 6 inches.* In very rich soils the beets should be closer together, 
and in very poor soils they should be farther apart. With rows 18 
inches apart, the beets planted at a distance of 6 inches in the rows, 
the number of beets per square yard would be twelve and the approx- 




* The beet seed should be pLiuted ulpse together. Some fiutborities recoraraend 
fifteen jjouuds per acre. 



80 

imate number of plants per acre, 49,000. Supposing that each beet 
will weigh 1 pound, this will give a yield of 2V^ tons per acre. The above 
conditions may represent a fair average beet field under favorable condi- 
tions, although it must be admitted that the average yield of beet fields 
does not reach so high a figure. If, however, there is a complete stand of 
the plant, so that every space is occupied, with a fair soil, properly pre- 
pared and cultivated and supplied with a proper fertilizer, the above 
yield can be secured. In every case, however, an attempt should be 
made to plant the beets close enough together to secure a matured 
plaut, after the separation of the head and tops, weighing about 1 
pound. This is found to be the size which best secures a high content 
of sugar with a large yield of roots, and therefore represents condi- 
tions most favorable both to the farmer and manufacturer. 

IMPLEMENTS FOR CULTIVATION OF SUGAR-BEETS. 

Any ordinary plow may be used for preparing the land for sugar-beets, 
care being taken that the ground be evenly and completely broken and 
at an even depth. Instead of plowing to the depth of 12 to 15 inches 
in the first place, it is best to use the f.rst plow to the depth of 9 or 10 
inches, following with a subsoil-plow to the depth of 4 or 5 inches. A 
subsoil-plow suitable for this purpose is manufactured by the Moline 
Plow Company, of Moline, 111., and its general character is shown in 
Fig. 13. 




Fig. 13.— Subsoil-plow. 

It is often convenient to have the plow and subsoil-plow combined in 
the same instrument, thus saving the labor of one man. So little !;ub- 
soiling is done in this country that very few such implements are to be 
found in the market. A plow of this kind, largely employed in France, 
is manufactured by Bajac at Liancourt (Oise), and its general form is 
shown in figure 14. 

The subsoil plow is removable, and when the instrument is to 
be used as an ordinary i)low it can be taken oft". In plowing with sub- 
soil attachments caro shouHl be taken to make narrow furrows, so that 



81 

the whole subsoil may be loosened and not left in a series of trenches. 
In no case, in plowing for sugar beets, should the furrow be wider than 
the cutting capacity of the plow itself. Any good harrow can be used 
for reducing the plowed land to the proper tilth, and no description of 
this instrument will be necessary in this place. 




Fig. U.— Subsoil-plow, attached to plow. 

For planting the seed it is best, in small patches, to do it by hand, 
or by the implement represented by Fig. 12, but when large areas are 
to be sown in beet seed, power drills should be provided. A drill 
made by the Moliue Plow Company for cotton seed can be easily adapted 
for use with beets. This is shown in Fig. 15. 




Fig. 15. 



An ordinary drill for planting Indian corn can also be easily adjusted 
for planting beet seed. Great care, however, should be taken in drilling 
the beet seed not to cover it too deep, and all drills should be adjusted 
so that the average depth of the seed shall not be more than 1 inch, 
25174— Bull. 27 ^ 



82 



CULTIVATION. 

In addition to the hand-boe, Pig. IG, for early cultivation, the horse- 




Fio. 16. 



hoe manufactured by Bajaccan be used with great advantage. Its gen- 
eral coustruction is shown in Fig 17. 




Fig. 17. — Horse-boo for sugar boots. 



83 

Other forms of apparatus used iu cultivating beets are shown in the 
followiug tigures, 17 to 21, inclusive.* 

BerieVs richjcr, <h-ill and cultivator. 





Fig. 18. — Kidges after passage of drill. 




Fk;. 19. — Cultivator for woiking between rows or ridfjes. 





Fig.— 20. Scarifiers and rollers for flat culture. 



Fig. — 21. Leader to cultivator. 



From McMurtrie's Special Report No. 28. 



84 

The hoes are arranged so as to cultivate three rows of beets at a time, 
and are so adjusted as to completely clean the spaces between the rows 
without throwing any of the soil upon the young plant itself. Inas- 
much as each seed of the beet may give one, two, or three plants, form- 




FlG. 22.— Combined beet-seed and fertilizer drill for flat culture.* (James Smyth & Sons, Peasenhall, 
Suffolk, England). The machine has a range of five hoea 18 inches apart, but the machines vary in 
number and interval of the hoes, and in price. — (Knight.) 




Flo. 23. — Detail of hoe and covering wheel. 



ing clusters in the rows, it is necessary that the thinning should be 
done as carefully as possible without injuring the plants remaining in 
the soil. It is best that the planting should be close together so as to 
give a large excess of beets, since in case replanting is necessary it will 
be noticed that the replanted beets, are uniformly' of poorer quality than 
those of the first planting, aud if possible the surplus beet plants should 
be removed by a sharp-cutting hoe without touching the one which is 
to remain. In this way one healthy plant should be left from every 6 
to 10 inches in the rows. When the beets begin to show the neck above 
ground, it is well to throw a little dirt against them so as to form a 
slight ridge. This can be done by a ridging hoe, such as is indicated 
in Fig. 24. 

* From McMurtrie's special report No. 28. 



85 
This hoe, as well as the one mentioued previously, is made by Bajac. 



Fig. 24. — Ridging hoe for sagar-boets. 

After the ridging is done it is recommended to go between each row 
with a subsoil plow of very narrow cut to the depth of 12 to 15 inches. 

CULTIVATION. 

Whatever kind of cultivjitor may be employed it will be found neces- 
sary to protect the young plants from being covered by dirt. Various 
kinds of shields may be used for this purpose, such as are often used in 
the plowing of young corn. Sometimes it is customary to cultivate the 
beets before they are up. For this i)urpose at the time of sowing a few 
grains of rye are placed in the furrow with the beet-seed. Rye, sprout- 
ing sooner than the beets, marks the rows so that the cultivator may 
be used as if the beets were already out of the ground. The cultivation 
should take place at least every two weeks, and oftener if the ground 
is very weedy, till the middle or the end of June. Unless some shield 
is used, as above indicated, for the young plants it will be found that 
many of them will be destroyed by the early cultivation, leaving large 
spaces unoccupied in the rows, thus giving a smaller yield, and per- 
mitting at least a portion of the beets in the fields to grow to an un- 
usual size. 

METHOD OF CULTIVATION USED AT ALVARADO, CAL. 

The method of cultivation employed by the Alameda Sugar Com- 
pany, of Alvarado, Cal., has been kindly sent to me by the president of 
the company, Mr. E. 0. Burr, and is as follows: 

'•■Plowing begins soon after the 1st of January and continues until 
late in the spring, varying according to circumstances of weather and 
soil. The lands are subjected to two plowings, the first about 8 inches 
deep and the second to the depth of 12 inches, seldom more, although 
it would be better in results. After plowing the lauds are rolled to 



86 

break clods, tbeu harrowed and planked with a rude contrivance made 
of boards. 

Rude as it is, it is quite effectual in reducing the lumps and giving 
the surface a smooth ai)pearance. The preparation of the soil is one of 
the chief factors for a good crop. The plowed lands are now allowed 
to stand for a short period, generally a week, until, as farmers say, 
" the under moisture comes to the surface," an expression which may 
mean the reverse, for intelligent farmers claim that the lower layer 
turned to the surface is too cold and damp to germinate the seed read- 
ily, and by letting it stand open to sun and air it becomes drier and 
warmer. After the resting period seeding begins with horse drills, in 
rows 15 inches apart, and eight rows to the machine, the seeds being 
dropped in an almost unbroken row in order to induce a good stand. 
The depth to which the seed is planted varies from one-half to 2 inches, 
b'lt our instructions this year are to plant one-half inch deep only, as 
our observations last year showed a large percentage of ungerminated 
seed at the greater depth, owing probably to too low temperature. As 
soon as the plants form three or four leaves, that is, large enough to 
distinguish from weeds, they are thinned out to 4 inches apart in the 
rows and freed from weeds. In about sixteen to twenty days the sec- 
ond weediijg and cultivating takes place. Last year the cultivation 
part by Chinese labor was a farce, but this year we have introduced 
some French implements in the shape of "extirpators" and scarifiers 
which we hope will free the farmer from the Chinese, and do the work 
more effectually. The " extirpateur" we imported from Mr. H. Amiot- 
Lemaire of Bresles, France, and which, acting similar to a harrow, is 
intended to loosen the soil to a depth of 8 inches. The scarifier, as its 
name implies, is to go between the rows and destroy the weeds. It is 
built like our cultivators, but with entirely different blades. 

"Last year the cultivation was flat, but with the new implements 
there will be more of a tendency to ridges. The farmers use no fertil- 
izers as yet, although they would be benefited thereby. Were this 
company raising its own beets, I should certainly insist on it. Yet the 
lands so far seem to show no deterioration. Last year the whole State 
suffered from drought and our crop was meager in consequence. 

"The average number of plants per acre was 57,000. The average 
weight per root, topped, on the highlands near Centerville was 121 
grams ; near Alvarado, on lowlands, the weight, under same conditions, 
was 307 grams. There is no agreement between the number of roots 
per acre and the weight. The estimate was carefully made when the 
first weeding and thinning was done, for roots per acre, and the weights 
were determined at the factory from every load delivered. In July, 
near Centerville, the roots ceased growing and we worked hundreds of 
tons of beets no larger than a cigar. In some places the yield was not 
over two tons per acre. Of course, under these circumstances, many 
roots did not mature. 



87 

"The methods of farming here must be altered to a very great extent, 
but it is very difticult to convince the farmers and will take time to ef- 
fect. We hope during the current year to make some improvement, 
and shall continue our system of obtaining data. Two men are con- 
stantly in the field (one a chemist) from the time the first seed is given 
out until the crop has matured, and they survey each man's plot, esti- 
mate the number of roots per acre, obtain weights weekly of beets with 
and without leaves, and make weekly tests of sucrose, non-sugar, 
quotient, etc., from each man's parcel. They also note method of cul- 
tivation, condition of crop, etc. 

"The sowing begins toward the end of March and continues, working 
from the highlands to the lowlands, until tbe middle of May. 

"The crop matures about August 15, and is all at the factory by De- 
cember 1, our storage capacity being for about 0,000 tons only. We 
tried some experiments with beets in cold storage, but the figures are 
not before me. One test is worth noticing. We tested beets which 
had been continuously overflowed from December 1 to March 1 and 
found them to contain 14 per cent, sucrose, with a quotient of 84 per 
cent." 

DISTANCE AT WHICH SUGAR-BEETS SHOULD BE PLANTED. 

Formerly the author had recommended that beets should be planted 
so that there should be about 10 plants to the square meter. Since, 
however, the change of law in regard to the taxation of beets requires 
that they should be grown with great saccharine richness he recom- 
mends that they be planted so as to have from 15 to 20 plants per 
square meter. In tliis way a beet of great richness can be secured, 
while the quantity produced per hectare will remain about the same as 
when only 10 plants per square meter were cultivated.* 



METHODS OF CULTIVATION IN BOHEMIA. 

The methods of cultivation used in Bohemia are described by Com- 
mercial Agent Howes, as follows : t 

" PREPARATION OF THE LAND. 

"The sugar-beet needs well-cultivated land. First, a surface loose 
and fine, which allows the air to enter and facilitates germinating and 
swelling; second, deep, loose, uniform soil, because the beet should 
develop a slender root without side rootlets. Both can be obtained only 
by good cultivation. Cultivation differs according to the soil. 



* A. Ladurean, La Sncrerie. ludigeuc, Vol. 33, No. 23, p. OSS', 
t Consular Report pp. 248 et seq. 



"Thefollowinj2^ suggestions are of value: Loosen the subsoil without 
bringing it to the surface. If the subsoil be not good, this is doubly 
important. The depth should be from 30 to 40 centimeters, and a plow 
similar to that shown in Fig. 25 should be used. 




Fig. 25. 

" To begin deep plowing, 30 centimeters will be deep enough. After 
several years it may be made 40 centimeters, but should be deepened 
only gradually, because, if too much dead soil comes up, the land is 
ruined for at least one year. Deep plowing should always be done be- 
fore winter, so that the frost has time to work on the soil. 

'•'• Steam plow 'mg. — By the introduction of the steam-plow an imple- 
ment was put in the hands of the farmer, the work of which can not be 
equaled. The reasons why the steam-plow works so well are — 

" (1) By the speed with which it operates the soil is well mixed and 
pulverized. 

" (2) The depth of all the furrows is the same. 

" (3) It plows to any depth, especially in heavy soils which would 
require a large number of animals. Generally the soil is loosened to a 
depth of 35 to 50 centimeters, and the plants are enabled to take nour- 
ishment from a larger quantity of soil. 

" (4) In dry seasons soils plowed by steam retain longer their humid- 
ity. In wet seasons the water descends quicker to the subsoil. The 
steam-plow increases the crop and renders it certain. 

" (5) The animals leave foot-prints (four oxen make about three hun- 
dred and sixty thousand in plowing 1 hectare), and therefore cause a 
not unimportant loss. 

" (6) It is possible to work in spring and fall, when with animals it 
would be impossible. 

" (7) A large number of animals can thus be used for other purposes. 

" If we consider that with a steam-plow 3 hectares can be plowed in a 
day, while with a common plow one-third of a hectare can be gone 
over, then nine common plows are needed to do the work of one steam- 
plow; and, as four oxen are needed for each plow, thirty-six oxen would 
be employed, and, as they should be used onW half a day, seventy-two 
oxen would be required, and their work is not equal to that of one steam- 
plow. 

" The excellent work of the steam-plow can increase the crop of beets 
from 4,000 to 5,000 kilograms per hectare. The cost of plowing by 



89 

steam is between $11 and $16 per hectare for a depth of 32 to 40 centi- 
meters. 

" Deep plowing can be done in such a way that two plows go one 
after the other, the first cutting 15 to 20 centimeters deep and the sec- 
ond 10 to 18 centimeters. 

" Another way to loosen the deeper soil is as follows : The land is 
plowed from 15 to 20 centimeters, and laborers then spade up the 
deeper soil from 20 to 24 centimeters, the undersoil being scattered 
over the surface. This method is expensive, but produces very good 
results. 

" Still another way to procure most of the advantages of deep plow- 
ing, and one which is generally used on very heavy soil or on lands ex- 
posed to inundations, which consequently dry at a late period, is to 
form ridges. 

" This is done in the following manner : The land is plowed in the fall 
in such a way as to form a ridge. For this purpose a hill plow is used, 
or a machine invented by Dr. Biirtel and called a ' ridge former.' 




Fig. 26. 

" In spring these ridges are split, and thus new ridges are formed. 
These must be rolled to an even surface. 

''The advantages of preparing the land in this way are: The water 
gathers in the furrows and runs off; the soil in the ridge is always in a 
good condition and the air can penetrate it. 

" If grain has been grown on land about to be planted in beets the 
preparation goes on in the following way : The stubble is plowed as 




soon as possible to a depth of 5 to 8 centimeters. For this work gang 
plows, as shown in Fig. 27, are used. 



90 

"As soon as weeds come up the land is harrowed and rolled. Before 
winter the deep furrow is plowed, and, if stable manure is used, it 
should be applied before the middle of November. In such cases only 
a moderately deep furrow is needed, because, as before remarked, the 
manure thus decomi)oses better. 

" The land remains in this state during the winter, and is therefore ex- 
posed to the influence of frost, rain, etc. In spring it is ready for the 
beets. Then, as soon as possible, it should be harrowed. The harrows 
used are, if the land is crusted, ' The Extirpator,' or, if necessary, it 
must be plowed 15 centimeters deep. Then the "Acme" harrow is used. 

" If sugar-beets follow beets, potatoes, or corn, the land is simply 
plowed before winter. 

"Before planting all land should be rolled. 

'TLANTINCr. 

" The time of planting influences the crop in a high degree. 

" It is shown that in a warm, dry season the crop of an early planting 
is larger than in a cold, humid season. The time of planting is the mid- 
dle of spring, with a temperature of from 9° to 12° C. (48^ to 54° F.) 
Early planting begins with April and lasts until the end of that month ', 
late planting is in May. In general, early planting is to be preferred, 
because the danger from frost is not so great as that of drought. It 
should always be remembered that the seeds should be put in a soil 
warm enough to germinate in six or eight days, not twelve to sixteen 
days, as is the case in cold, humid soil. 

" Distance apart. — This has a great influence on the crop and the 
quality of the beet. The experiments of Vilmoriu show that the largest 
crop will be grown if the beets be planted comparatively near together. 
If the distance increases, the proportion of leaves increases. The lighter 
and poorer the soil the further must the beets be planted apart, and ex- 
periments show that this influence is greater than that due to manuring, 
or even the choice of the variety. Distances vary from 30 to 50 centi- 
meters from row to row, and from 10 to 25 centimeters in the row. 

^' Dejith for planting. — The seeds need onlya very light covering — 2 to 
3 centimeters is the right depth. If part of the seeds are not covered at 
all, it does not cause so much damage as if they are covered too deeply. 

" CULTIVATION. 

" From the time of planting up to that of harvesting the following 
suggestions should be observed : As soon as the sowing is done the 
roller must be used, because in pressing the surface the humidity, which 
is very necessary for the process of germiuating, is drawn by capillary 
attraction oirtof the deeper soil, and the surface is thus kept moist. 
The roller maj^ be smooth or have rings ; the latter is better, because it 
makes the surface of the land rough, and therefore a heavy rain can 



91 

not form a crust. If, after sowiug:, a crust covers the field, the riug. 
roller is the best Iniplemeut ior breaking it, and after this a light har- 
row is recommended. Thus is the soil loosened, the air can enter, and 
germinating and growing are facilitated. When the plants have grown 
so that the rows are visible, hoeing must be done, and the earlier the 
better, not only because the weeds are destroyed, but also because the 
plants need a loosened soil. The ofteuer the plants are hoed the better 
will be the crop as regards quantity and quality. Indeed, quantity and 
a high sugar percentage can only be obtained by hoeing. Tlie first 
hoeing must be only superficial, that all the weeds are thrown on the 
surface to dry, and care must be taken that no soil covers the young 
plants. The hoeing should be done even if the land be dry, as hoeing 
prevents the evaporation of the water from tbe deeper soil. If laborers 
can be had, it is preferable to first hoe by hand in such away that only 
the soil about 50 centimeters distant from tbe beet is hoed and the soil 
between the rows is untouched. This is then hoed with the cultivator. 
If hoeing must be done by horse-power, the cultivator shown in Fig. 
28 is used. 




Fig. 28. 




Fig. 29. — View from above of same machine. 



" After the hoeing comes thinning out. This must be done as early as 
possible, and generally, plants sowed by the Dippel machine must be 



92 

thinned out earlier than those planted by the drill, the reason being that 
the latter have more light and air than the former. It is practical to 
thin out when the plants have three or four leaves. The root is then as 
thick as a straw, and the whole plant has a length of 8 to 10 centi- 
meters. 

" If planted with a drill, the work of cultivating can be done in two 
ways: 

■ " (1) The field is crossed with the cultivator at right angles to the 
rows, and the knives are set so that they leave about 2.5 centimeters on 
each side of the beet untouched. Of the plants which remain in this 
space the weakest are removed by hand. 

" (2) The whole work is done by hand. By means of hoes the laborers 
remove the superfluous plants, leaving spaces about 20 to 25 centimeters 
between. Children are employed here for this work, as they can best 
get down to it. 

" Cutting the leaves ofl" is not sufficient, as the leaves grow again ; or, 
if not, the i^laut becomes a harbor for insects. One person can thin out 
one-ninth to one-eighth of an acre a day. After thinning, hoeing by 
hand should follow immediately to loosen the soil around the plants ; 
then, between the rows should be hoed, and the time this should be done 
depends upon the weeds and the soil. As a rule, the intervals should 
not be more than a fortnight. A fourth, and possibly a fifth, hoeing 
would increase the crop. Of course, hoeing can not be done when the 
plants are large enough to be damaged. 

"Hilling up now follows. This must be done because, by covering 
the beets with soil, it prevents the heads from growing out, and there- 
fore this part of the root, which is of no value to the manufacturer, as 
it contains little sugar, is lessened. Water can run off and evaporate 
better, and the soil will not become incrusted. In heavy soils this is a 
very important point. The time for hilling up is important, as if this 
is done too early the plants are buried, and if too late the leaves are 
damaged. Hilling up can only be done when the soil is in good condi- 
tion, i. <?., neither too wet nor too dry. For this can be used a plow with 
a single share, or that already shown in Fig. 29. On small farms it is 
usually done by hand. 

"HARVESTING. 

" This is done when the beets are ripe, /. e., when growing stops and 
all the products of the leaves go to the root, where they are deposited. 
In Bohemia beets ripen from the end of September to the middle of 
October. 

" ISigns of ripeness. — The leaves become yellowish green, fall and form 
a kind of a wreath around the plant. The middle leaves, so-called 
" heart leaves," also of a yellowish green, do not fall. 

" Harvesting should not be too early, as the loss occasioned thereby 



93 

may amount to as much as 2 per cent. Of course harvesting must take 
phice before heavy frost, though the beet can stand frost from 3^ to 4f> 
C. (240 to 27° F.). If early frosts should come, it is best to let the beets 
thaw in the soil, as the loss will be thus lessened. 

^^Row harnestlng is done. — (1) By hand. To each man is apportioned 
a certain tract of land, which he works by contract. The soil around 
the plant is loosened, and then the plant is drawn from the ground 
by hand. Work with the fork would be easier, but might injure the 
beet. 

" (2) By team. A subsoil-plow is used, which should be set for a 
depth of 35 centimeters. A still better implement is the beet-lifter, 
shown in Fig. 30. This machine can be worked by a boy, and also does 
not injure the plants which are left loosely standing upright in their 
places, where they are better i)rotected against sudden rain or frost 
than if lying upon the ground. As work can be done much faster with 
the lifter tban by hand, this machine will no doubt be of much use in 
the United States. 

" Cutting off the heads. — The green heads must now be cut off, as they 
are of no use. This is done in the held, and here it is the work of women 
and girls, who accomplish their work rapidly, using sharp knives. 
About 1 to 2 centimeters of the beet is removed. 

^^ Piling up the beets. — This is necessary, as it is impossible to imme- 
diately transport an entire crop to the factory, and they must be pro- 
tected from rot and frost. Perhaps the best plan is that recommended 
by Kiiauer, especially if the beets must remain a long time on the field. 
A ditch 1 foot deep and 6 feet wide is dug, and of the required length. 
Beets are then piled up with roots toward the center for a height of 1 
foot, and covered with C inches of soil. Then another layer of beets, 
covered also, is added, and then another, until the pile, tapering, is of 
the shape of a prism. If the soil is very dry, water should be applied. 
Beets so buried will keep six or seven months with little loss. 

" It is best to grow only one crop in four or five years on a single field, 
as otherwise the soil will be exhausted and insects and parasites in- 
crease, so that great losses would occur. Beets should follow grain or 
barley, and after the beet the best crop to plant is barley." 



HARVESTING THE BEETS. 

The beets may be harvested either by hand with a hoe, spade, or fork, 
or by simply puUiug them from the ground, or by a harvester drawn by 
horse power. Some advantages are claimed for each method. If the 
harvesting be carried on by hand, care should be taken that the instru- 
ment used should not strike the beet, since it is certain that every 
time the beet is punctured or bruised a certain loss in sugar will ensue 
unless it is immediately worked. It is estimated that in harvesting by 



94 

hand eacli beet, on an average, will lose from 15 to 20 grams of its 
weight, or very nearly a ton per acre. For the Bajac harvester figured it 
is claimed that the beets are entirely loosened from their position, so they 
can be easily removed by hand with much less danger of being bruised 
or broken than any other method of harvesting. It is also estimated 
that by mechanical harvesting- a more complete removal of the beets 
from the soil is secured, since when the harvesting is done by hand 
many roots are left unnoticed in the soil. According to some estimates 
from 1 to 3 tons of beets may be left per acre when the harvesting is 
done by hand. It is further claimed that by the mechanical method 
of harvesting the beet, being neither bruised nor punctured, is more 
readil}^ handled for the purpose of preservation, without being exposed 
to the least source of loss. 

It is probable that in this country the mechanical method of harvest- 
ing beets will be almost the sole one employed for all commercial pur- 




FlG. 30. — Beet harvester for one row. 



poses; but meanwhile, where beets are grown only in small quantities 
and before the introduction of the proper machines for harvesting, it 
is probable that harvesting by hand will be more common, especially 
for small plots. 

A note has already been given in regard to the time of harvesting, 
which should begin as soon as the beets are thoroughly matured and 
before they have an opportunity to take a second growth or be exposed 
to freezing temperature. In some places in California, as has already 
been stated, the harvesting begins as early as the middle of August, 
while in the ISTorthern, Central, and Eastern States it had best be post- 
poned at least until the middle of September, and perhaps better until 
the middle of October. 



95 

Harvesting tlie beets is best done by implements devised for that 
purpose, two of which, made by Bajac, are shown in Figs. 30 and 31. 

The first one is a machine for harvesting a single row at a time and 
the second one indicates the beets caught in the prongs of the appara- 
tus arranged for two rows. Harvesters are also built to take three 
rows of beets at a time. 

Mr. Lewis S. Ware, editor of the " Sugar Beet," who attended the 
Universal Exposition in Paris in 1889 for the purpose of making a study 
of the sugar-beet exposition at that point, makes the following remarks 
in regard to harvesting:* 

" Beets, like other plants, require a certain number of degrees ot heat 
for their complete maturity. Just when this period is reached is diffi- 
cult to determine ; one fact, however, remains certain, that whatever 
the theories are respecting outer signs they can not possibly hold good 
for all conditions of weather, climate, etc. That the leaves are brown 




Fig. 31. — Beot harvester for two rows. 



or covered with characteristic spots or other indications when the 
greater purity of juice has been reached must remain very emi)irical. 
TVlany manufacturers have suffered from early harvesting where farmers 
have depended upon outer signs of the general appearance of the field, 
such as a yellow or green color, etc. Some agronomists maintain that 
there exists a proportion between the weight of the leaves and the root, 
the latter being almost a constant at 65 and 35 for the leaves in a weight 
of 100 pounds. This can not be a constant, as it varies with the variety 
of beet. Others contend that a proportion of this kind is more reliable 
than any system of analysis. 

" In France the harvesting occurs at the end of September, and dur- 
ing October cold weather frequently commences. The farmer too fre- 
quently considers his own interest, and neglects that of the manufact- 

» " Sugar Beet," No. 4, vol. 10, p. 49. 



96 

nrer ; if he leaves the beet in the g^roiind for a considerable period it 
is solely with tbe hope that the weight may increase ; when this ceases, 
from his point of view, the roots should be harvested. 

" There are, however, cases where experience teaches that certain 
portions of the field should be harvested earlier than other parts ; but 
unfortunately it frequently happens that hands are then secured with 
difficulty, and the farmer is unable to furnish the roots at the factory 
in the best possible condition. One plantation may be in the most de- 
sirable condition, while another may not reach the necessary maturity 
for several weeks afterwards. It necessarily follows, that if the entire 
crop is harvested at once, it will frequently result in a considerable loss 
to the manufacturer, and may represent 1 per cent, difference in the 
yield. 

" On small areas special harvesting spades are used, or frequently a 
sort of fork. Tbe latter has evidently the disadvantage of bruising the 
root, resulting in a decrease in sugar percentage. Whatever be the 
method adopted, the roots when taken from the ground are shaken to 
rid them of adhering ])articles; frequently the necks are then sliced off, 
and the roots covered with leaves to protect them from the sun, rain, 
etc. Many fiirmers simply make piles of their roots, covering the same 
with thin layers of earth, awaiting the time for hauling either to the 
factory or the silos. It has been frequently noticed that there results 
an increase in the sugar percentage of the roots during the several days 
they remain in the piles. All the hand methods of harvesting have 
one important objection, viz, the difficulty of obtaining the full labor 
of men or women, owing to the fatiguing nature of the task. 

"Viallette recommends harvesting with a plow, the coulter being 
taken oft'. Two horses are required and the plow is run alongside of the 
row, about 2 centimeters beyond the beet, throwing the earth to one 
side; children follow the plow, and collect the roots. The objection to 
this method is, the tields are always in bad condition after a rain and 
carting from them is almost imj^ossible. The cost of harvesting with 
the plow is $7.40 per hectare. 

" It has not been many years since the Bajac beet harvester was in- 
troduced to the public, and since then it has undergone but few modifi- 
cations as regards the general working. It is constructed entirely of 
steel, and is very light and simple in its mechanical working and ar- 
rangement. To the fore wheels is attached a well-balanced vertical bar, 
with a series of horizontal holes, into which is run the pin holding the 
horizontal shaft for the support of the harvesting blades. 

" The blades are made of the very best steel, and are so constructed 
as to offer but little traction during their working; their penetration in 
the soil hardly affects the upper surface. The slight slant of the blades, 
when in contact with a beet, forces it upward, and the operation is 
completed by a peculiar vibration given, caused by a portion of the 
blade having an elliptical section. As soon as the implement moves 



97 

forward, the loosened roots fall back into their respective holes. Under 
these circumstances, there can be an interval of several days before 
collecting them for the factory. During this period, as they are uot 
exposed to the open air, there is no danger of second growtli produced 
by rain, etc. The working of the Bajac harvester requires but little ex- 
perience, and at a few minutes' notice hands are said to be able to 
handle it. 

" The direction of the harvester is determined by a lever within easy 
reach of the conductor. The dei)th of the harvesting blades may be 
regulated according to requirements. It is very evident that the work 
of this machine is preferable to hand harvesting; not only is it better 
done, but the cost is very much diminished, and ueed not be more than $1 
ail acre, regardless of the distance between rows. Practical experience 
appears to demonstrate that the saving is about 30 per cent, of the 
amount harvested. Small, adhering roots not being removed, the beets 
are in a perfect condition when delivered at tlie factory. 

" Before mentioning other advantages of tlie implement under con- 
sideration, it is interesting to give some even more recent types of the 
Bajac harvester. 

" Owing to the success obtained with this machine it has been sug- 
gested that a two or three line implement might render excellent serv- 
ice ; both of such are on exhibition. The general arrangement is the 
same as with the one-line description. 

"The work in both cases is very satisfactory, and 4 acres with the 
two-line implement and 5 acres with "the three line type may be har- 
vested in a day of ten hours. In the latter case the traction is consid- 
erable, and requires at least four horses. If, in certain cases, beets are 
harvested rapidly, the operation may result in considerable profit to all 
interested. Interviews and conversations with farmers have convinced 
the writer that the Bajac harvester is the best in existence. Beets over 
li feet in length are extracted from the soil, which could not be accom- 
plished by any previous appliances. The fact is, .we have seen with 
their tip ends, so to speak, a distance of nearly 3 feet from the neck, 
taken from the soil after these harvesters had finished their work. 
When we consider that the richest portion of a beet is that which was 
previously left in the ground after harvesting, we have no difficulty 
in realizing the excellent services these implements are destined to 
render. 

" Caudelier's beet harvester appears to be very original in design, 
and was in use for the first time in 1888. Its work is very satis- 
factory, and certainly much more economical than could be done by 
hand. The arrangement of its several parts is calculated for the best 
results. 

" The necessary traction to work this implement is said to be very 
slight, two horsos, liowever, are required. A fact uot to be disputed 
25474— Bull. 27—7 



98 

is, that the soil is very slightly disturbed ; the fore wheels determine 
the direction of the work and support the working parts. The deptli 
of {)enetration may be regulated by a screw, while the coulter, placed 
in front of the harvesting device, opens the soil. This is said to dimin- 
ish the resistance the harvesting tool and its flat slanting support would 
offer. The circular disk between the fore wheels slices off the leaves 
as the row of beets is liarvested. Under these circumstances, as is 
frequently the case, they do not collect against the coulter or form an 
obstacle difficult to surmount. 

" Caudelier had on exhibition another type of harvester much simpler 
in its construction than the foregoing. The arrangement of fore wheels 
ami attachments permit the slanting of the implement in any direction. 
In the working of this harvester the beet is scarcely touched, the blade 
X)assing under the root without bruising the same." 

REMOVINa THE NECK OF THE BEET. 

The upper part of the beet bearing the stems of the leaves and the 
part which is most exposed to the sun and light is known as the neck. 
Before the beets are manufactuied it is necessary to remove this neck, 
both on account of the poor quality of sugar juice which it contains and 
on account of the large amount of mineral salts found therein. Two 
methods of procedure are followed. In one case the necks are removed 
at the time of harvesting, and before the beets are siloed. This method 
saves one handling of the beets and prepaies tliem at once for washing 
and manufacture. The other method consists in siloing the beets be- 
fore the removal of the necks, and postponing this process until they 
are ready for manufacture. This method is preferred for the following 
reasons: 

When the necks of the beets are cut the juices of the plant escape, 
including a i)ortion of the sugar, and fermentation is easily set up in 
the silos. It is therefore probable, on the whole, the beets will be pre- 
served much better in the silos without having the necks removed. Ac- 
cording to Bajac (Bulletin de L'Association des Chimistes, April, 
1890), harvesting should take place before the beets lose their vigor, 
and in place of removing the necks and sending the beets at once to the 
factory, or silo, they should be placed in small piles, together with their 
leaves, of from 70 to 80 centimeters in diameter and of equal height. 
These piles should be quite conical and with the leaves turned out. 
The summit should be covered very carefully, in order that the water 
and frost may not penetrate it. In place of separate piles, rows of sucli 
beots could be established along the length of the field, and being left 
thus for a fortnight, the beet would finish its maturation with its leaves 
still attached to it. It would lose scarcely anything in weight, and it 
would gain in density and, probably, in sugar. 



99 

In regard to density, experience has shown that beets harvested ou 
the 20tb of September and showing at that time a jnice of 1.072 sp. gr. 
which were preserved with their leaves as above mentioned, gained in six 
days .006 in density. Experiments carried ou for a month from week 
to Meek upon beets from the same field, some having the necks cut and 
tiie others preserved with their leaves, showed in each instance an 
increase in density, while the decrease in weight of the whole beet was 
most sensibly marked in those in which the neck was cut off. Some of 
tliese beets exposed to rain on the 20th of November showed some 
cnrions phenomena. Those in which the neck was cut had lost .003 in 
density, while those with their leaves remaining had lost only from .001 
to .005, Beets with the necks cut which had been kept for a longtime 
were found almost dried out, while those in which the leaves had not 
been removed were but little affected. 

HARVEST AND PliESERVATION OF THE BEETS.* 

" If circumstances of labor, commencement of manufacture, weather, 
etc., allow, the beets should be gathered at the time when their outward 
ai>pearance indicates their maturity; that is wlieu the bright green of 
the leaves gives place to a lighter and more yellowish color and the older 
leaves wither and fall off. This is a sign that an arrest of the develoi)- 
menfc has commenced and beets ["athered then are best adapted for pres- 
ervation and manufacture even though they may not have the highest 
sugar content. Beets which are harvested a short time before this 
period ripen somewhat afterwards in the silo, but generally do not keep 
so well. 

" When the beets are gathered the leaves are cut off and they are im- 
mediately covered with earth in small heaps. With beets that are not 
to be kept very long it is best to cut off only so much of the head as may 
be necessary to remove the leaves so that they hang together. If it is 
desired to remove more of the crown it is better to do it in the factory 
immediately before the beets are worked up. Only at the commence- 
ment of the campaign when the beets are taken directly from the field 
is it advisable to cut off at once all that is necessary. Generally the 
beets that have been cut close show no tendency whatever to sprout, 
that is to show leaves in the silo. But their not sprouting is a sign 
of the cessation of all vegetable life and is generally accompanied by 
an undesirable change known as " hardening" in the juice, which is 
more injurious in the manufacture than the development of sprouts, and 
which latter, if it has not i>rogTessed too far, is preferred by the manu- 
facturer. 

" Various forms of plows are in extensive use for harvesting the beets; 
they are indispensable where hand-labor is scarce. They simply loosen 
the beets in the ground so that they may easily be drawn out, and do not 
injure the roots. L 0FC 

* Stammer, Op. Oil., pp. 20(5 el seq. 



100 

" The preservation of such beets as are to be worked up during a sea- 
son extending over several months demands the greatest care and atten- 
tion to the climatic conditions. They must be protected from frost, 
which would burst the plant cells of the beets and cause them to spoil 
rapidly after being thawed out. Moreover, too much evaporation of the 
water must be guarded against, as this produces a wilting of the beet, 
which would have the effect eventually of injuring the juice and the 
keeping qualities of the roots. Finally, too large piles of beets pro- 
duces an elevation of temperature which heats them, and the spoiling 
of the beets follows in consequence. From these requirements it may 
be laid down as a rule, at least for the climate of Northern Germany, 
that beets should be placed in heaps or silos whose height and breadth 
are small enough to prevent the development of heat, and these should 
be immediately covered with a layer of earth, which should be suf- 
ficiently increased from time to time so that frost can not reach the 
beets. The layer of earth also affords protection against too much 
sprouting or wilting in consequence of too much warmth. The proper 
treatment varies somewhat in consequence of differences in climate and 
peculiarities of soil, but the following general directions may be given 
as of universal application. 

" The beets should not be alowed to lie and wilt after harvesting, but 
covered as soon as possible. The silos, made as small as it is safe to 
make them, should point north and south. 

"The use of straw is to be avoided except as a temporary protecliou 
against wind, sun, and frost, and should then be replaced with earth as 
joon as possible. Large beets should be preserved in small silos; with 
small beets the silos may be larger. 

" Care must be taken not to damage the beets in putting them away, 
and injured roots should be carefully picked out. As a winter cover- 
ing, 3 feet of earth is given in north Germany, though the last foot is 
not added at once. To facilitate their removal the piles should be ar- 
ranged lengthwise along the driveways. 

" For long keeping the top of the silo is generally roof-shaped, some- 
times rounded off"; the bottom is made eitheron the surface or slightly be- 
low it. In some cases such a form is chosen as gives a right-angled cross- 
section. There nothing to show that the form of the silo or the nature 
of the soil exerts any influence on the preservation of the beets. The 
size of the silos used varies, and especially according to their situation, 
whether they are placed in the fields or near the factory. In the east 
of Germany large silos prevail, in the west small ones seem to be pre- 
ferred. Breadth and depth vary less than the length ; the breadth 
from 4^ to 6J feet, the depth from 3 to G feet, seldom over G, and only 
in a few instances less than 3. Where the silos are sunk below the 
surface it is generally 1 to 1^ feet, seldom less. The quantity of beets 
that can be placed in a silo depends principally upon iti length, and 
varies all the way from or 7 tons up to 25 or 50 and more. When 



101 

placed in the Held generally each acre or half acre has its special silo. 
Generally the contents of the silo are given in rnnning yards of the 
length of the silo, and are usually about 1 to 2 tons per yard. Where 
the beets are heaped up according to the Belgian method, the piles 
hold very considerable amounts, even up to 1,200 tons. 

"The covering is done with loose soil packed closely at the bottom, 
but being less dense toward the toj). In the first weeks the top is left 
open, or very lightly covered, and heaped up when it becomes colder. 
The thickness of the covering varies from 1 to 3 feet, the latter thick- 
ness not being found very generally' in the east. The use is sometimes 
made of other materials, for example, straw, etc. A thin layer of straw 
is covered over with earth, except at the top of the ridge. Some spread 
a hiyer of straw below the beets. It is generally accepted that in the 
silo a loss of sugar of about 1 per cent, takes place. 

"A special method of siloing consists in leaving openings in the 
earth covering at the sides of the silo to keep the temperature low in- 
side. The objection to this is that the beets quickly wilt around these 
openings, and that they can not be closed quick enough to provide 
against a sudden fall of temperature. Some places and climate require 
especial precautions. 

" Babrinsky has formulated the following rules for silos in southern 
Russia, based on many years of observation and experiment: 

" (1) No beet should be farther than 1 meter from fresh air. 

" (2) For every cubic meter of beets there should be 30 square deci- 
meters of evaporating surface. 

" (3) The air in preserving cellars should be daily renewed if it be 
above 40° F. in temi^erature. 

" (4) Beets do not lose more than 10 to 12 per cent, of their weight 
by evaporation. 

" (5) If the beets are wilted on harvesting they should be moistened 
with water, and a large number of ventilating canals be built in the 
silos or cellars. 

"According to Walkhofif, in southern Russia the beets are entirely 
buried in the ground, in a canal with steep, sloping walls. The bottom 
is covered with a sort of a grate of firewood, on top of which the beets 
are piled up to within a few inches of the surface of the earth. In the 
center on top is laid a triangular-shaped wooden gutter to increase the 
amount of evaporating surface. The whole then receives a covering of 
straw, which is. increased or diminished in thickness according to the 
temperature indicated by the thermometer inserted. A sort of venti- 
lation is accomplished by canals at the side leading outward,so that at 
night the cold air may be permitted to enter, while during the warmth 
of the day they are closed. 

" Preservation in cellars is also much used in Russia, according to 
Walkhofif". These are built to project but slightly above the surface of 
the ground with their roofs, which are covered with earth. The bottoms 



10? 

are covered witli interlaced twigs, ami the layer of beets is about 3 
feet thick. Ventilatiou is secured by air-passages in the sides and roof. 
This method is rather more expensive, but the preservation is better 
insured. 

" It has long been a desideratiou, so far unfulfilled, to find some 
means whereby the beets might be protected, on the one hand from the 
consequences of overheating and on the other from freezing, as well as 
from too rapid si)routing and from rotting; that is to say, in a good 
sound condition and without loss of sugar, for some length of time. On 
account of this not being yet attained, the tendency is to shorten the 
working season and to increase the quantity worked each day. The 
discussion of this question and the proper limits to set is of little ad- 
vantage. It is to be hoped that more attention will be jtaid to observa- 
tions on the changes undergone in the silo, upon which improvements 
in the methods used may be based." 



103 



SILOS AND CELLARS. 

The following' illustrations of silos and cellars are taken from Mc- 
Mnrtrie's Eeport28. In California silos are not required, and the beets 
may be preserved in large heaps as shown in Fig. 43 : 

rrescrri))ff irenoli (Basset). 




Fir 32 — litiK It i>i». 11 a diain ti( lu li 




FKi. 33.— Tieucli filled, with ventilating shaft arranged. 




Fig. 34. — Trench filled and covered. 



104 




105 



SOIL. 

As has been indicated already, the character of the soil for the pro- 
duction of beets should be determined by actual trial. No detinite rule 
can be given in regard to a soil from its chemical composition alone. In 
general it may be said that any soil which will give good crops of the 
cereals and other farm i)roducts will produce good sugar-beets. A 
sandy loam with a clay subsoil is sometimes recommended as the best 
for sugar-beets. In California the deposits of the coast valleys which 
are alluvial ar lacustrine in nature have been found to produce a sugar- 
beet of remarkable richness. The sandy loams of the Platte Valley in 
Kebraska have also been found to produce a rich beet. I do not know 
that any scientific trials have been made in the growth of the sugar- 
beet on the black prairie soils so common in the prairie regions of Indi- 
ana, Illinois, and Iowa. It seems to me reasonable to suppose that these 
soils, after they have been cultivated for a few years in other crops, 
might in many localities produce a sugar-beet of high quality. The 
black color of the soils allows them to become most easily warmed by 
the early suns of spring and would tend to give an impetus to the growth 
of the beet which would help to carry it through in all the vicissitudes 
of climate which it might subsequently meet. There are many of these 
prairie soils which are not only dark in color but are of a loamy nature 
in texture and capable of being easily worked to a considerable depth. 
Soils which have been in cultivation for a few years are better suited 
for the production of the sugar-beet than virgin soils containing large 
amounts of organic nitrogen. All soils devoted to sugar-beet culture 
should have good natural drainage or else be artificially drained, so that 
the tap root of the beet may not reach the water-line of the soil. Very 
thin soils, or those which reach a hard clay subsoil at a small depth, are 
not suitable to beet culture, on account of affording no facilities for the 
penetration of the tap root. Beets grown in such soils are likely to pro- 
trude above ground and thus lose a large part of their sugar-storing 
room. Any soil, selected for the purpose, should have a tillable depth 
of from 12 to 15 inches, should be well drained, mellow in texture, not 
becoming hard and impacted after rains, and lending itself easily to 
tillage. 

It is not necessary, in this place, to give many chemical analyses of 
soils which are found suitable to beet culture since these analyses differ 
very little from those of soils suitable for other crops. In general, it may 
be stated that the chemical analysis of a soil suitable to the growth of 
beets must show the ordinary percentages of the mineral substances 
necessary to plant growth, viz, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. 
Other mineral substances which enter in minute quantities into beets 
are always found in sufficient quantities in all soils except those of an 



106 

extremely sand^- nature. The presence of a considerable quantity of 
carbonate of lime is highly essential in soils growing sugar-beets, not 
only on account of the part it takes in supplying plant nutriment but 
because of its tendency to prevent the soil from becoming sour by neu- 
tralizing any acids which may be found therein, and further from the 
well-known effect of lime in producing fiocculence of the soil which ren- 
ders it difficult to impact and makes it more easily tillable. The pres- 
ence of a large amount of carbonate of lime in a soil makes it porous 
and easily penetrated, both by the rootlets of the plant and by capillary 
moisture. This condition of the soil tends both to free it easily from 
water during times of excessive rains and to sui)ply it with moisture in 
seasons of drouth. It may be well to add also that the field in which 
the beets are planted should be one freely exposed to the light and air, 
not shaded by surrounding forests nor lying in a position where its 
natural inclination will protect it from the rays of the sun. The impor- 
tance of suidight in the production of sugar in the beet will be men- 
tioned in another i)lace. 

Stammer makes the following statements respecting the soil:* 

" It may not be absolutely reliable to say that a soil, because of given 
chemical and physical properties, is perfectly adapted to the growth of 
beets ; nevertheless, it is in general safe to accept that a soil which is 
of a porous nature, deep in staple, rich in humus, and more disposed to 
a loam or calcareous, than to a sand character, is very suitable for the 
cultivation of the beet, and especially if the subsoil drains off" the water 
freely and the surface of the ground lies well towards the sun. Of 
course, it is included that not any of the chemical elements, such as 
potassium or phosphorus, w^hich the beet is in great request of, are 
meagerly present in the soil. 

" The lime content of the soil is most important to the beet, and soils 
which appear to contain but little of that compound in a free state, 
which is indicated by the absence of the OO2 generation when treated 
with hydrochloric acid, should be well limed for the growing of beets. 
The action of lime upon clay soils and such as are of a sour nature, is 
improving 1)11} sically as well as chemically by giving a milder tone to 
their composition and effects. 

" It is further essential, or at least advantageous, that a soil for the 
cultivation of beets should be located at a good altitude iu order that 
it have a free expanse to air and light. This observation has been re- 
cently established by Hanamann in his experiences, extending over 
several years, in growing beets in an experiment garden, the products 
of the experiment plots being meager and poor in quality in comparison 
with beets grown in the open field. A series of experiments conducted 
by him have led to the conclusion that the free and elevated position 
of the land has a decided influence upon the nature and quality of the 



stammer, Lehrbuch der Zuckerfabrication, p. 169. 



107 

beets 5 aud further, that the size of the beets stands in inverse pro- 
portion to their content in sugar and salts, and finally that the fine 
piilveiized condition of the soil exerts a great effect upon the growth of 
the roots, i. e., upon the yield of the crop. 

" With the beet the choice of a suitable soil has its special difficulties, 
as it grows so deep in the earth, and draws much of its essential nutri- 
ment from stratas which enter less into consideration in the question of 
its adaptability for other crops. The nature of the so called subsoil is, 
without doubt, of more decided influence upon the growth of the beet 
than of most other crops, and for the determination of its quality many 
of the essential stand-points are lacking. This is also the reason why 
previous experiments have given so few reliable conclusions upon the 
action of fertilizers. The part of the soil is fertilized from which the 
beet draws its nourishment during a large part of its existence, it is 
true, but not during the [)eriod of sugar formation, and the chemical 
means (snch as the admixture of chloride of soda) which carry the fer- 
tilizing materials to the subsoil, are by no means sufficiently certain in 
their action that immediate results can be expected from experiments 
with them. 

"On the other hand, the subsoil cultivation which brings up tbe 
lower layers of soil for the nourishment ol the plant, has produced the 
best and niost desired results in beet cultivation, and all the observa- 
tions upon the influence of the use of the steam plow upon the beet har- 
vest, aud they have resulted favorably without exception, lead to the 
same conclusions. 

" Chemical analysis, especially in its present condition, has little value 
for beet cultivation, in so far as it relates to the composition of soils gen- 
erally known as loams, and as regards i^hysical properties, actual ex- 
l)eriment is the best means to determine whether a soil is adapted to 
beet culture or not. 

" Naturally soils which do not possess the above general characteris- 
tics, for example, sandy, wet, stony, etc., are excluded, while, on the 
contrary, such as are known from their origin to contain an ample sup- 
ply of the constituents of beet ash may be presumed in all probability 
to be well adapted to beet culture. Such a conclusion, however, should 
not be drawn too hastily from a single experiment; the effect of the 
necessary preparation of the soil makes itself felt but slowly, so that it 
is brought gradually into proper condition." 

THE CLIMATE AND SOILS OF CALIFORNIA IN THEIR RELATIONS TO 

BEET CULTURE. * 

"The soils and climate of California have been carefully studied by 
Prof. E. W. Hilgard in his rei>ort published in Volume VI, Tenth Cen- 
sus, p. 6G5, et seq. 

*Bull. b cit. p. 90, et seq. 



" The following table contains data of thermal observations. It will 
be vseen at once that the summer temperature of the interior valleys of 
the western or coast division is entirely too high for successful sugar- 
beet culture. 



WESTEP^X on COAST DIVISION. 
IFidin vol. vi, Tenth Ceiisu.s, p. CG8.] 





County. 


(3 
CS 


d 

o 

o 




Ten 


peratnro, Fahrenheit. 




General average. 


Monthly extremes. 


Station. 


a 

!= 

5 

05 


o 
B 




Summer. 


Winter. 




B 
S 
a 


a 


a 



a 






Coast region, north. 


Del Norte ... . 


Feet. 


16 
6 

5 
11 
5 
4 
7 
4 

12 
6 
C 

7 

7 

U 

4' 

20 


O 

59.5 
58.2 
74.7 

70.3 
58.0 
67.8 
70.1 
66.7 
62.9 

59.7 
60.0 
66.9 

07.9 

73.2 

74.2 
80.1 
69:7 


o 
47.2 
47.0 
58.8 

49.3 
50.1 
52.2 
48.9 
40.5 
50.5 

50.2 
50.8 
48.8 

54.1 

55.6 

53.2 
50,2 
54 1 




53.9 
52.9 
57.8 

59.9 
5.5.2 

.57.7 
60.3 
56.8 
59.2 

55. 5 


o 






Fort Hiiinbolilt 


Hiinil)ol(lt 


50 










Camp Wiijilit 










Coast region, middle. 
Napa 


Napa 


9,1 

130 

14 

""h\ 

2,500 
140 










San Franci.sco .. 

Alameda 

Contra Co.sta . . . 
Santa Clara .... 










Oakland 


72.6 
74.5 
76.0 
66.8 


i879 
1878 
1879 
1881 


49.1 
41.9 
42.2 
46.2 


1880 
1h80 


Jan Jo.sc') 


1876 
1880 


Coast region, tonth. 


Monterey 

do 






55.0 
57.8 

61.4 

64.9 

03.7 
65.1 
62.1 


65.1 
77.3 

70. o) 

83.3 


1877 
1876 
1874 
1876 
1877 
1876 


43.9 
41.8 

[50.4 

49.9 


1882 


Sr)ledad (interior) 

Santa Barbara 


...do 

Santa Barbara .. 
Los Angeles 

Snn Bernardino. 
...do 


3, 213 

20 

2G5 

1,000 

905 

ti4 


1877 
1875 
1882 


Interior valley. 
Kiversido (Rio do Jurnpa) . . 




86.1 


1879 


44.9 


i882 




San Diego 















109 



INTEllIUlt AND EASTEliX DIVISION. 



f 


County. 


a 
.2 

!> 


a 

o 

'o 

S 




Tenipciatuie, Fahreniicit. 




General average. 


Monthly e.xtreines. 


station. 


1 

5 






Sum 


mer. 


Winter. 




S 

3 

3 
'Pi 


a 


a 

a 
'n 




Nurthera Sierra and Lava 
Ucds. 

Fort Jones 


Siskiyou 


Feet. 
2, .570 
4,6o0 

556 

308 

■ 67 

30 

1,360 

5,93-t 
5,819 

23 

91 
171 
202 
2S2 
415 


5 
5 

7 
10 
10 
10 

11 

11 
11 

10 

8 
9 
5 

7 


o 
71.1 
71.1 

81.6 
80.8 

78.7 
71.8 

74.1 

CO. 9 
61.1 

72.5 

78. 2 

79. 1 
St. 1 
83.8 
86.2 


o 
34.1 
32.3 

47.3 
47.5 
19.5 
48.2 

45.4 

32.7 

27.7 

48.2 

47.8 
4!). 
51.3 
4.5.9 
48.7 




52 3 


o 




o 




50.8 

63.4 
63.7 
64.4 
60.8 

58.6 

45.2 
43.3 

00.8 

63.2 
63.4 
07.6 
04.4 
67.3 










Great Vallei/ {Sacramento 
dluisiii/i.) 


Shasta 


87.2 
88.9 
83.9 
76.9 

80.5 

73.1 
70.3 

„.:S 

85.3 
85.1 
90.0 
95.2 
93.0 


1879 
1875 
1871 
1876 

1875 

1871 
1871 

1872 
1874 
1879 
1874 
1878 
1874 
1875 


42.5 
39.9 
44.4 
43.0 

39.8 

26.3 
21. 7j 

K° 

40.4 
43.2 
43.9 
,39.1 
41.9 


1880 


iivA Bluff .-• 


Tehama 

Yuha 

SacrauK'Uto 

Placer 


1879 




1880 


Sacranieiito 

Fuot-hiUs of the Sierra. 


1880 

18c2 


High Sierra. 








1880 


Great Valley (San Joaquin 
division). 




1880 
1879 


Alodesto 


Staiii.'-hius 

Merced 


1881 
1876 




1882 


Tularw 




1874 






1878 









" Following is Professor Hilgard's descriptiou of the climate of C;ili- 
foruia : 

As to the change iu temperattiro in ascending the Sierra from the valley, the fol- 
lowing statement is made by Mr. B. 13. Redding in a paper read before tbo California 
Academy of Sciences in 1878 . 

" It has been found that the foot-hills of the Sierra up to the height of about 2,500 
feet have approximately the same temperature as places iu the valley lying in the same 
latitude. It has also been found that with the increased elevation there is an increase of 
rain-fall over those places in the valley having the same latitude, as, foriustauce, Sac- 
ramento,with an elevation above the sea of 30 feet, has an annual mean temperature of 
GO. 5^, and an average rain-fall of 18.8 inches, while Colfax, with an elevation of 2,421 feet, 
has an annual mean temperature of 60.1^ andan annual rain-fall of 42. 7 inches. This uni- 
formity of temperature and increase of rain-fall appears to be the law throughout tlie 
whole extent of the foothills of the Sierra, with this variation as relates to tempera- 
ture, viz, that as the latitude decreases the temperature of the valley is continued to 
a greater elevation. To illustrate, approximately, if the teuiperature of Redding, at 
the northern end of the valley, is continued to the height of 2,000 feet, then the tem- 
perature of Sacramento, in the center of the valley, would bo continued up to 2, .500 
feet, and that of Sumner, at the extreme southern end of the valley, to 3,000 feet." 



no 

" It is curious to note that, as appears from Mr. RotUliug's statement, 
the lowest temperature thus far observed at the two opposite euds of 
the vallej'^, Redding and Sumner, are the same, vn'z, 27^. 

" It will be noted that in the southern region the difference between 
the summer moans or between winter means, as well as between the 
annual means, is quite small when Santa Barbara and San Diego, botb 
lying immediately on the coast, are compared. At Los Angeles, 20 
miles inland, all these means are notably higher; still farther inland, 
and with increasing elevation, the summer mean rises, while the winter 
mean falls at Riverside, as well as more strikingly at Colton, altHough 
at the latter point the annual mean is almost the same as at Los An- 
geles. 

" To convey an easily intelligible idea of some of the climatic differ 
ences indicated in the table, it may be stated that while in the great val- 
ley a few inches of snow cover the ground for a short time nearly every 
winter as far south as Sacramento, and snow flurries are occasionally 
seen even at the upper end of the San Joaquin Valley, snow has fallen 
in the streets of San Francisco only once since the American occupation 
to such a depth as to allow of snowballing (which during a few hours 
created a state of anarchy, and only a few times has enough fallen to 
whiten the ground for a few minutes or hours. Hence the heliotrope, 
fuschia, calla lily, and similar plants endure year after year in the open 
air, while at a corresponding latitude in the interior they require some 
winter protection. Lemon and orange trees never suffer from frost on 
the bay, but their fruit also rarely ripens save in favored localities. In the 
interior these trees more frequently suffer from frost, but the high sum- 
mer temperature matures the fruit some weeks earlier than even in the 
southern coast region. Cotton would, as a rule, be trost-killed in the 
great valley in November, while on the coast it might endure through 
several mild winters; but within reach of the summer fogs of the coast 
it fails to attain a greater height than eight or ten inches the first sea- 
son, and sometimes can scarcely succeed in coming to bloom before Oc- 
tober. Subtropical trees, which in the cotton stages grow rapidly and 
luxuriantly, such as tlie crape myrtle, panlownia, catalpa, mimosa (Ju- 
librissin), and others, either grow very slowly or remain mere shrubs 
in the coast climate, while in the interior they develop as in the Gulf 
States. The vine flourishes near San Francisco, but fails to nuiture its 
fruit, yet it yields abundant and choice crops near San J<»se, where the 
immediate access of the coast fogs is intercepted by a range of hills. It 
is thus obvious that, with the varying topography, the change in the 
direction of a valley or mountain range, the occurrence of a gap or of 
a high peak in the same permitting or intercepting communication with 
the coast on the one hand or with the interior on the other; there exists 
innumerable local climates, 'thermal belts,' sheltered nooks, and ex- 
posed locations, each of which has its peculiar adaptations apart from 
soil, and the recognition and utilization of these adaptations require 



Ill 

knowledge and good judgment, aud count heavily in the scale for or 
against success in agriculture in California. 

'■'' Rainfall. — As regards the rain-fall, the prominentpeculiarity through- 
out the State is the practicalh' rainless summer. While it is true that 
rain has been known to fall in every month in the year, the avcragi) 
amount of precipitation during the three summer months is lesp than 
1 inch in the greater portion of the States, and less than 2 inches even 
in the most favored part, viz, the counties just north of San Francisco 
Bay. Frequently not a drop of rain falls in the interior valley and the 
southern region from the middle of May to November, and as the agri- 
cultural system of California is based ujion the expectation of this dry 
weather, summer rains are not even desired by the farmers at large. 
Northward, in the mountaiuons and plateau regions adjoining Oregon, 
the season of drought becomes shorter, as is also the case in the high 
Sierras, and thus there is a gradual transition toward the familiar regime 
of summer rains and occasional thunder-storms which prevail in Oregon 
and Washington west of the Cascade Range. 

" Since the growing season, in the case of unirrigated lands at least, 
thus i)ractically lies 'between November and June, aud each harvest is 
essentialiy governed by the rains occurring within these limits, it is 
the universal and unconscious practice to count the rain-fall by ^sea- 
sons 'instead of by calendar ye^rs ; hence the current estimate of local 
rain-fall averages in California differs not immaterially from that of the 
usual meteorological tables, in which the paramount distinction between 
the agricultnrally ' dry ' aud ' wet ' seasons is more or less obliterated. 
The <lata hereinafter given are therefore, as a rule, 'seasonal' and not 
' annual,' and are largely those of the observations conducted along 
its lines by the Central and Southern Pacific Railroad. 

" The mean anraal rain-fall of the greater (middle and southern) part 
of the State is less than 20 inches, the northern limit of that region 
lying between Sacramento and Marysville, in the great valley ; while on 
the Sierras, the region of rain-fall, betweenSO and 26 inches extends as 
far south as the heads of King's and Kern Rivers, furnishing the waters 
upon which depends the iri'igation of the San Joaquin Valley; thence 
southward the rain gauge rapidly descends to 8 and 4 inches, an'd less 
in the Keru Valley, the Mojave Desert, and the basin of Nevada. 

"A rapid decrease of rain-fall is observed in the great interior valley. 
From 42 inches at Redding, at the northern end of the valley, and 24 
inches at Red Bluff, 24 miles to the southward, the annual mean falls 
to about 19 inches at Sacramento and to 10 at Stockton. Thence south- 
ward the rain fall descends to a mean of only 10 inches at Merced, 7 at 
Fresno, and 4 at Bakersfield, near the southern end of the San Joaquin 
Valley, separated only by the Tehachapi Mountains from the western 
margin of the Mojave Desert, in which the rain fall is still less. 

" Along the coast proper Cape Mendocino bears the reputation of a 
kind of weather divide. Mariners expect a change of weather whenever 



112 

tliey round this cjipc, and on land it marks the region where the char- 
acter of vegetation begins to change rapidly from that of southern or 
middle California toward that of Oregon. At and immediately north 
of the cape the rainfall reaches an annual mean of 40 inches. A short 
distance southward, at Point Arenas, the annual fall is 26 inches, and 
from 23 to 21 inches in the region of San Francisco ; it falls to IG inches 
at Monterey and Santa Barbara, 12 at Los Angeles, and 9 at San Diego. 

" Northward of Cape Mendocino the rain-fall increases rapidly, rising 
to over 70 inches in the northwestern corner of the State. Inland from 
tlie coast the increase is less rapid, but the rainfall rises at points in the 
Shasta region to as much as 108 inches in some years. Southward the 
region of rain-fall exceeding 20 inches extends in the coast range slightly 
larther south than in the great valley, so as to include all but the most 
southerly portions of the counties of Sonoma, Napa, and Maiin. South- 
ward of San Francisco again a region of more abundant rain-fall in- 
cludes the western Santa Clara Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Mon- 
terey Bay, and the lower Salinas Valley, where from 13 to 16 inches 
fall annually. 

"Ascending the Sierra from the great valley there is a rapid increase 
of rainfall, which, from data furnished by the records of the railroad, 
may be estimated at 1 inch for every 100 to 150 feet of ascent. 

" The following tables show more in defail the rain-fall averages for rep- 
resentative points, the data being derived mainly from the observation 
made under the auspices of the Central and Southern Pacific Bailroad 
and given for ' seasons' reaching from July to June inclusive. 

WESTERN OR COAST DIVISION. 



station. 



Coast liange, north. 



Cainp Lincoln .. 
Fort iriuiiboldt 
Camp Wright .. 



Coast Jtange, middle. 



Napa 

S:m Krancisco 

Oakland 

Martinez 

Sai. Joso 

Santa Criiz . . . 



Coast Range, souib. 



Montoiey 

Salinas 

Solcdad (intprior) . 

Santa Barbara 

iios Angeles 



Interior Valley. 

Riverside (R. de Jurupa) 

Coltoii 

San Diego 



County. 



!3§ 

c -P 



Del Norte.. 
Hiiniholdt . 
Mendocino. 



Napa 

San P'rancicso 

Alameda 

(/'ontia Costa 
Santa Clara.. 
Santa Cruz . . 



Monterey 

.. do 

...do 

Santa Barbara 
Los Angeles .. 



SanlSirnardino 

. do 

San Dio"o. . 



Feet. 



50 



95 

130 
U 

'" 91 
2,600 



3, 213 

20 
205 



1,000 

365 

C4 



In. 

73.4 
35.9 
13.9 



26.6 
20.7 
20.6 
16. 1 
11.4 
26.4 



15.7 
12.8 
7.9 
16.2 
12.0 



13.0 
8.2 
9.3 



In. 



34.7 
32.1 
29.3 
19.7 
19.3 
39.2 



23.7 
15.3 
31.5 
21.9 



1877-'78 
1877-'78 
1877-78 
1880-'81 
1877-'78 
1877-'78 



1877-'78 
1 87.5-' 76 
1877-'78 
1875-'76 



1 877-' 78 



17.1 
8.8 
9.6 

12.9 
5.0 

22.0 



3.9 
2.7 
4.5 
4.6 



5.9 



]881-'82 
1876-'77 
]881-'82 
1881 -'82 
1870-'77 
1878-'79 



1870-'77 
1876-'77 
1876-'77 
1876-'77 



lg76'-77 



113 



INTERIOR ANEi EASTERX DIVISION. 



Statiou. 


Couuly. 


Elevation. 


3 _: 

X I- 

- u 


6 

if. 

<1 


a 
1 

a 








Northern Sierra and Lava Beds. 
Foit Joiie.s 


Siskiyou 

Modoc 

Shasta 

Ti'liaiiia 

Yiil>a 

Saerauieuto.. 

riacer 

Placer 

Nevada 

San .loaquin .. 
Stanisla\is .. 

Meried .' 

I'rcsno 

Tulare 


Feet. 

2,570 
4,ChO 

550 

308 
67 
30 

1,360 

5,934 
5,819 

23 
91 

171 
292 
282 
415 


5 
5 

10 
U 
32 

11 

It 
11 

32 

11 

10 

5 

8 


In. 

21.7 
20.2 

42.1 
24.0 

17.8 
18.7 

34.0 

60. 8 
34.1 

1.5.8 
9.0 
9.7 
7.0 
0.2 
4.2 


In. 




In. 




Fort Bidwt'll 










Great Valley {Sacramento Division). 
Rcddinj; 


CO.O 
52.7 
26.9 
25.5 

44.3 

82.7 
44.0 

20.6 
13.4 
12.7 

8.9 
10.0 

8.0 


1877-'78 
1877-78 
1873-74 
1875-70 

1875-76 

1880-'81 
1871-72 

1871-72 
1875-76 
1875-76 

1877-78 
1880-'8l 
1877-78 


25.4 

13.6 

12.2 

9.2 

18.9 

34.1 

18.0 

7.2 
4.3 
3.2 
4.9 
3.1 
1.3 


1881 '82 


Red liluff 

Miirvsvillo 


1874-75 
1876-77 




1876 77 


Foothills of the Sierra 


1876-77 


High Sierra. 


1870-77 


Truckeo 

GreatValleyiSan Joaquin Division). 

Stockton 

Modesto 

Merced 

Frosno 

Tiiliire 


1876-77 

1870-77 
1870-77 
1870-77 
1878-79 

1H78-79 




1878-79 









" Were the rainfalls of 20 inches and lesr, distributed over the whole 
or even the greater part of an ordinary season of the temperate zone, 
it would be altogether inadequate for the growing of cereal or other 
usual crops of that zone ; but since in California nearly the whole of it 
usually falls within six months (November and April inclusive), and by 
far the greater part within the three winter mouths, during which a 
'growing temperature' for all the hardier crops commonly prevails, 
it becomes perfectly feasible to mature grain and other field crops be- 
fore the setting in of the rainless summer, provided only tliat the aggre- 
gate of moisture has been adequate and its distribution reasonably 
favorable. The grain sown into the dust of a summer-fallowed field 
begins to sprout with the first rain, and thenceforward grows more or 
iless slowly, but continuously, through the winter. It is ready to head 
;at the first setting in of warm weather, from the end of March to May, 
:according to latitude, and becomes ready for the reaper from the end 
of May to the end of June. Once harvested, the grain may be left in 
the field for several months, thrashed or uuthrashed, without fear of 
rain or thunder storms. As a matter of course, the grain-grower may 
;also, at his option, sow his grain at any time after the beginning of the 
rains, and good crops are sometimes obtained from sowings made late 
in February. Usually, however, the late-sown grain is cut for hay 
whejj in the milk, in April and May, for, since meadows can form no 
part <^f the agricultural system, except where irrigation is feasible, the 
25474— Bull. 27 8 



114 

hay grasses commoiily grown in the Eastern States are available only 
'to a limited extent, and wheat, barley, and oats take their place. 
Again, there is uo strict distinction or H nut between fall and spring 
grain, since the sowing season extends from October to February, 
Thus the winter mouths are a very busy season for the farmer in Cali- 
fornia, as be has to watch his opportunity for putting in his crops be- 
tween rains. The time between lying-by and harvest is nearly filled 
up by gardening and haying operations. The latter are occasionally 
interrupted by one or two light showers, rarely enough to injure the 
quality of the hay. Protracted rainy si)ells or thunder-storms, calling 
for hasty gathering of the cut grain into shocks, are unknown in 
harvest time, as are also sprouted or spoiled grain, except when the 
sacked grain is left out in the fields so late as to catch the first autumn 
rains. It will thus be seen that midsummer finds the California grain- 
grower comparatively at leisure. 

" But while the culture of hardy plants of rapid development was the 
first and most obvious expedient resorted to by the American settlers, 
in order to utilize the fertile soils of the region of rainless summers, 
that of selecting culture plants adai)ted to arid climates was the one 
naturally suggesting itself to the missionary padres, who brought with 
them from the Mediterranean region of Europe the vine, the fig, the 
olive, the citrus fruits, as well as from adjacent portions of Mexico the 
culture of cotton, to which, how^ever, but little attention was given by 
them, the growing of wool being better adapted to the temper of their 
native laborers. And as they relied largely on irrigation for the suc- 
cess of their annual crops, it was only in very extreme cases that a 
deficient rain-fall so affected their interests as to give the fact a place 
in their records. 

^^ Variation and periodicity of rain- fall. — While the means of rain-fall 
given above will not vary widely when any large numbers of years are 
taken together, the variations from one year to another are often suffi- 
ciently great to tempt many to invest heavily in putting in crops on the 
chances of a favorable season, which would bring a fortune at one vent- 
ure, but sometimes results in a total loss and consequent ruin to in- 
vestor. Such cases of agricultural gambling were at one time not un- 
common in the San Joaquin Valley especially, the turning point of profit 
or loss being a single light shower at the critical time or the occurrence 
of a norther for a day or two. More ingenuity has been spent in trying 
to forecast the weather for the season in time to determine the chances 
of success, but it will generally be found that the oldest citizen, if he 
is candid, will be far more reserved in his opinions than later comers.. 

"HoW'Cver steady and reliable the summer climate may be, that of a 
California winter is most difficult to forecast from day to day and from 
week to week, and while there are certain rules that are ordinarily 
counted upon, the cases where 'all signs fail' are very fi^quent,. aud 
surprises are abundant. A discussion of the observation^, mad^ frQi\i 



115 

1849 to 1877, by Di. G. F. Becker, late of tlie University of CHliforuia, 
and now of the United States Geological Survey, seems to indicate as 
probable a cycle of thirteens years between extreme minima of drought 
years, and some data 1 have since obtained from the records of the inis- 
sious seem to confirm still further this conclusion. The first minimum 
within the time of the American occupation of California occurred in 
the season of 185()-'51, when the rain-fall at San Francisco was 10.1 
inches, and the third was the season of 1876-'77, with 10 inches. The 
nest succeeding season of minimum would be that of 188U-'l)0. 



UG 



Chemical atndi/se.s of Calijornia soils and 



182 
170 

600 
606 
702 

37 



682 
643 
692 

693 

694 

649 

1 

2 
4 

185 

188 

207 

205 
67C 
C72 



.Soil title. 



COAST RANGE HEfilOX. 



South o/ San I'ablo Bay. 



Viilley soil 

lieddishmouutaiii soil 
Beuch-lnnd subsoil . . . 



Upland soil 

lJ])laud loam soil. 
Cliaparial soil ... 



Valley soil. 



Sandstoue soil 



Sandstone subsoil 

Hlafk wax J' a dobe soil . 

Dark soil, "rolling up- 
lands. 

Dark subsoil, rolling 
uplands. 

Red gravelly soil, roll- 
ing uplands. 

Sediment soil 



Black adobe soil. 



Subsoil No. 1 

Adobe ridge subsoil. 



North of San Pablo Bay . 
Valley soil 

Red mountain soil 

Eel Eiver bottom soil. 



Subsoil of No. 207. 
lied volcanic soil 
Gray valley soil . . 



Locality. 



Santa Paula, Ventura County 

do 

Hollister's raucli, Santa Barbara 

County. 
Poverty Hill, San Benito County... 
So(juel ranch, Santa Cm/. County- - 
Two miles uoitlieast of Saiatoga, 

Santa Clara County. 
Pescadero, Sau Mateo County 



San Fnincisco, San Francisco 

County. 
do 

Cobton rancli, Contra Costa County 
Livernioro Valley, Alameda County 

do 



.do 



Arroyo del Valley, Liverraore Val- 
ley, Alameda County. 

University grounds, Alameda 
County. 

do' 

do 



G. F. Hooper's vineyard, Sonoma 

County. 
do ■ 



Three miles east of Ferndale, Hum- 
boldt County. 
.... do ". 

Flat on Clear Lake, Lake County. . . 
Two miles south of St. Helena, 
Napa County. 



12 

1 
12-18 



8-18 
12 


6-18 



22-30 
10-20 



12 

12 

12 

12-2.5 
12 
12 



Vegetation. 



Grass, herbs 
Oaks 



Cultivated 12 years.. 
Cultivated 



Redwood, pine, oak, 
alder, buckeye, and 
madrone. 

Scrubby live-oak 



Sunflower 

Scattering white oak 

and poison-oak. 
do 



.do 



Shrubs, herbs, and 

some sycaiuore. 
Live-oaks, lar^e 



... do . 

Scattered 

small. 



live-oak, 



Oaks and gape-vines . 

Oaks, manzanitachap- 
arral. 



Not known 

Large white oak. 



85. 6G4 
74,930 
83. 065 

85. 596 
80. 426 
57.449 

78. 084 



78. 135 

70. 224 
50. 960 
80. 262 

80. 658 

81. 941 
71. 156 



70. 089 
34. 392 
65. 346 



09. 373 
49. 604 

77. 017 



117 



subsoils. [Vol. vi. Tenth Census, p. 738.] 



_^ 


















































s'S 




















O -3 








.s 




ja 








3S 

H 


2 

o 


OS 

o 
m 


a 
2 


Ml 













(3 








s 














a! 


-c a 




M a 


i^ 






auj 


o 


fe 


■s 1 


o 








M 


py 



1. S47 87. .511 0. 634 0. 070 0. 759 0. rm,0. 1)2.- 
7. Stl'J 8-'. 8t2 0. (521 0. IG-t 0. 9J2 0. 0.5.J 0. OliO 

4. ii:HH7. li'.i 0. r>im o. o.is o. sui o. m> o. 055 

2. .';f!7!88. 103 0. 333 0. lOU 0. 676 0. .')2(i'o. 048 

3. 02883. 4r)4(). 343 0. 120 0. 502 0. 390 0. 014 
5. 1 U jO.'. 503 0. 859 0. 200 1. 987 2. 428 0. 098 

3. 237181. 32l'0. 541 0. 231 0. 925 0. 820 0, 039 



5 532 
9. 020 

5. 02-1 

5.157 



81. 5930. 675 0. 080 0. 840 0. 788,0. 0,53 5. 682l 5. 16 



7.5.750 0.590 0.172 0. 
59.980 0. 192 0.7412. 
85. 285 0. 299 0. 108 0. 



399 1.2210. 

471 0.H9O0. 
813 0.047 0. 



3. 350 
5. 070 
3.116 

2.850 
3 928 
10.019 

4.934 



3. 099 
5. 930 
2. OK 

4.214 
5.711 
9.516 



0.59 7.208 9. 
00511.090 15. 
005! :i-584 4. 



85. 8150. 357 0. 121 0. 093 0. 066 0. 025, 3. 047, 5 

0. 323 0. 081 0. 720 0. 503 0. 030 3. 620 

I 
1. 143 0. 123 



0.200 
0.127 
0. 223 



0. 003 
0. 039 
0.094 



0.027 0.015 
0. 053 0. 009 
0.139(0.063 

0. 084 0. 02' 



0.0310.053 

0.011 0.022 
0. O.57I0. 045 
0. 06g!o. 010 



3. 750 85. 097 
4.938'70.094 
77.814 



..69. .563 



0.452 



0.074 
0. 109 



120 0. 503 
049 3. 046 
0.50 1.211 



.093 
'86. 00210. 189 154 0. 484 0. 452 0. 0.J8 



0.9981.913 



6. 839 82. 928 
14. 110 48. 502 
6. 890 72. 242 



0.123 

0.958 

0.282 

3.588J72.96111. 134 0. 120 
5. 934 55. 538|0. <152i0. 170 
3. 340 80. 357 0. 746|0. 47'< 



0.435 
0.310 
1.127 



5.793 

25. 955 

G.980 

7.307 

0.658 0. 610 0. 051 10. 477 
0,600 1.331,0.041 5.656 



0. 670 0. 712 
0. 105 3. 329 
0.1013.239 



0.146 
0.117 



5.648 
4. 675 



7.208 
4.013 



32910. 062 0. 008 
5400. 001,0.008 



153 



0. 117!0. 101 



0.077 



0.028 



12. 160 0. 166 0. 274 

10.236 0.167 0.020 

9. 7.58 0. 14l'o. 026 
22. ,585 0.0310. 033 
5. 671i0. lOliO.OSO 



Tiace 



1.004 



o -^ 

r— ** 



cO 



.3.1321 99.3721 .5.49|1,5. 
2.069 99.414 0,.59|1 
3.8.54 99.871! 5.98115.0 



3.470 
4. 955 
11. 921 



5.404 

4.900 
8.304 
4.047 

3.435 

3:550 

3.679 

5.718 



100.443, 5.22 12 
99.485' 5.6U15. 
99.85312.09:1.'^ 

100.500 7.3815.0 



100.359 C. 02 15.0 



6.000:100. 
4.051 100. 



.135 9.41 
. 524 13. 51 
. 857 5. 67 

.158^ 6.12 

. I93I 4. 53 

201! 5.67 

198 

946 
993 



3. 715 99. 791 

11.640J100.602 

5.629 100.240 

4.665 99.506 
9. 0.54! ion. 259 
5. 252 100. 282 



4.98 
13.71 
7.87 



15.0 
15.0 
15.0 

15.0 

1,5. 

15. 

15.0 



15.0 
15.0 
15.0 



6.21 15.0 
11.11 1,5.0 
4.50,15.0 



Analvst. 



.lappa.. 

IXK 

Do. 

no. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Mor.se. 

Do. 
Do. 

Jappa. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Sutton. 

Do. 
Do. 



Jappa. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

Morse. 
Do. 



118 

Siiih of the ftoidhcni rc(/ion. 







Los Angeles Coun 


ly- 


SanD 


ego County. 


C on sti Inputs. 


Soil of 

San 
Gabriel 
Valley. 


Pomona Colony. 


Soil of 
tncsa 
laud. 


Bottom soil 

Colorado 

Puver. 


Lownie.'^a soil. 


Subsoil. 




No. 130. 


No. 382. 


No. 381. 


No. 48. 


No. 506. 


Insnlublo matter 


1 81.12 

0.21 
0.17 
O.GX 
1.77 
0.10 
C.30 
6.79 
0.16 
0.07 


{^|--^?|77.C40 

0.839 
0. 296 
2.354 
2. 225 
0.039 
8.097 
5. 974 
0.018 
0. 022 


I 


75.304>„n ,„~ 
3.872^»-l'*' 
0.962 
0.301 
2. 052 
2. 1,54 
0.043 
7.342 
5. 835 
0.049 
0.020 


86.21 

0.48 
0.14 
0.36 
0.54 
0.10 
3.69 
5.12 
0.23 
0.03 


1.177 
0.102 
8.071 


Potash 

Soda 

Linio 


Magnesia 


2. one 


Brown oxide of raangancse 

I'croxide of iron 


0. (IJ5 

4. i:;9 


Alumina 


8. :i79 


JMio.spIioric acid 


0. I3;i 


Sulpliuric acid . . 


0.145 

7 1^18 


Water and orjianic matter 


3 07 


2.550 


2. .546 


2.60 


3.344 


Total ... 


100. .50 


100.054 


100.480 


99. 50 


1 00. 800 










0.324 
0. 2C:J 






0.555 
1. 439 


0.752 








1.151 








0.133 




2.30 
15° C. 


3.460 
15°C. 




2.370 
15° C. 


2. 340 
15° C. 


9.204 


Absorbed at 


15=0. 







"Tliere are many parts of the 'valleys of the Coast Range' where 
the soil is suitable for beet cnlture. The following table gives the areas 
of this soil in regions where the climate will permit beet culture. The 
areas for each county are as follows: 

"The area of soil finitahJe for heel cnllirnlion, hi; conitties. 

Square miles 

Los Angeles 1,480 

San Bernardino 4(J.3 

San Mateo r)0 

Contra Costa 70 

Alameda 225 

Santa Clara 405 

Monterey...- 700 

San Benito 115 

San Lnis Obispo 1,090 

Santa Barbara :?00 

Ven t lira 170 

Sonoma ^50 

Napa 145 

Other valleys 40 

Lake 100 

Mendocino 125 

Sum 5,830 



"This gives a total area in acres of 3, 731, 200. Granting that two 
thirds of this area are unfit for beet cnlture for lack of moisture and 
local causes, there remains over a million and a quarter acres on which 



119 

beets coiild be grown. Of this area not less than half a million acres 
could be cnltivated annually. From the data of 3'ield of beets per acre 
and sugar per ton of beets, already given, the average may be put at 
15 tons and 9 per cent., respectively, or 2,700 pounds of sugar per acre. 
For 500,000 acres this would give 1,250,000,000 pounds. 

THE SUGAR-BEET IN OREGON AND WASHINGTON TERRITORY. 

" I was anxious to extend my iuvestigations of the possibilities of 
beet culture into Oregon and Washington Territory, but the limited 
time at my command prevented this design from being carried into ex- 
ecution. 

" Having learned that Mr. E. Meeker, of Puyallup, Wash., had been 
engaged in the cultivation of beets, I addressed him a letter making 
inquiries concerning the matter. 

" In answer I received the following communication. I regret to say 
the samples of beets which Mr. Meeker hoped to be able to forward for 
analysis have not been received. 

" Mr. Meeker says : 

"I am in receipt of your favor of 21st ultimo from San Francisco, and herewith in- 
close an article to answer your question with reference to growing sugar-beets in 
Oregon and Washington. 

"I will send you samples of beets grown by myself, and from others if I can obtain 
them. T. M. Alvord, White River, Wash., takes great interest in this qucstlou ; also 
J. W. Sprague, Tacoma, Wash., and James McNaught, Seattle, Wash. I would also 
suggest to send to the secretaries of the chambers of commerce of both Seattle and 
Tacoma. 

" I send yon paper containing an article of mine giving the cost in detail of our 
present year's crop. 

" My article refers only to Puget Sound country, or what is here known as western 
Washington. I am not fully advised as to the valley lauds of Oregon, but I think 
their heavy clay wheat-lands unsuitable. I also think the prairie, or in fact any 
lands of eastern Oregon or Washington, are unsuited from the excess of alkali 
contained in the soil, also from scarcity of fuel. 

"The climate of western Washington is mild and equable, neither very cold in 
winter nor hot in summer, and seems to be exactly suited to growing the sugar-beets 
to perfection. 

" There is always an abundant rain-fall in suuuner, so thftt we never have a failure 
of crops; the autumns are free from heavy frosts or freezing weather (at this writing, 
December 1, there has as yet been no freezing weather), but usually there is consider- 
able rain. 

" We do not irrigate ; in fact the soil is loose andfavorable, so that our crops grow 
well thewhole season, and remain green even during .a 'dry spell,' which, however, 
seldom occurs of sufficient duration to endanger crops. The growing season is very 
long, and all hardy vegetables are produced iu great abundance and perfection. 

" Soil suitable for producing the sugar-beet is in the alluvial bottoms adjacent to 
various rivers flowing from the Cascade range>of mountains towards salt water. 

" These rivers ai'e not large nor the valleys wide, but are numerous ; in the Puget 
Sound Basin there are eleven or more situated north of the Columbia River and south 
of our northern boundary. I should say the area of land in each of these valleys 
suitable for beet-culture would average sixty sections of land, or say about 40,000 



120 

acres each. This is nearly all timber laud and requires clearing, is a deep alluvial 
sandy loam, very rich, and produces an abundant and certain crop. 

" Fuel is abundant, and is widely distributed. The coal is under the table-land or 
foot-hills of the Cascade range of mountains, and is reached by short lines of rail- 
roads. The aggregate monthly ontpnt of the mines opened is, I think, about 30,000 
tons. It can be increased indttinitely, as the coal area is large, the veins numerous 
and heavy (thick). 

" So far, onr sugar-beets have been not only rich but also singularly pure. This is 
probably to be accounted for from our heavy rain-fall and agreeable climate. The 
actual cost of raising por ton for a period of five years has been less than $2.50 per 
ton, and the present year $2.25 per ton. We have grown them for cattle, and could 
utilize the pulp to great advantage in stall-feeding beef. 

" Our winters will admit of working sugar-beets nearly the whole time, the weather 
seldom being cold enough to interfere with harvesting the beets. Locations can be 
had where transportation is cheap, where fuel is cheap, where laml is cheap, and 
where the market for sugar is good. It would seem to be difficult to find better coudi- 
tiousfor the successful inauguration of this business than here exist, and we firmly 
rest in the conviction that sooner or later the capital will be found to develop thcst! 
favorable conditions, and that the day is not far distant when we shall see numerous 
beet-sugai factories producing not only enough for the immediate home consumption, 
but also for the great interior country of this continent. 

"Following are the results of culture mentioned in the foregoing let- 
ter : 

" I raised the present year 65 tons of beautiful sugar beets from 2 acres of land. 
There was no guess work; it was G5 tons of 2,240 pounds from the two measured 
acres. These cost me |2. 25 per ton, ami I will give this in detail that your farmers 
may ponder this question and see that I do not understate the cost: 

Plowing and subsoiling two acres $20.00 

Harrowing and clod mashing 6. 00 

Rolling 4.00 

Planting 2.00 

Seed 4. 00 

Cultivating (machine work) 16.25 

Hand weeding 20. 00 

Harvesting 21.50 

Housing, 50 cents per ton ,32. .50 

Rent of laud 20. 00 

Total 146.25 

"My neighbor, Mr. T. M. Alvord, of White River, has for five years raised an 
average of 100 tons a year at an average cost of less than $2.50 per ton and an aver- 
age yield of 20 tons per acre. We Icnotn that the beets can be raised; that the crop 
is certain; that the quality is good, pure, rich— in a word, everything desired to 
make this industry profitable, and now shall we throw this opportunity away, en- 
courage the importation of foreign sugar made by cheap, servile labor, or shall we 
encourage liome production and all the benefits that follow ?" 

" The following account of the topography, climate, and soils of the Chehalis Val- 
ley is taken from an article printed in Gray's Harbor News, Chehalis Couuty,Wa8h., 
April 19, 18d4 : 

" TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES. 

"Western Washington is a name given to that portion of country lying between 
the Pacific Ocean and the Cascade Mountains, the Columbia River and British Amer- 
ica. On its eastern border the Cascade Range, an unbroken chain containing the 



121 

highest peaks in the United States, stniids like a lofty -wall, slinttiug out and hiding 
the beautiful and fertile country west from the rest of the world. West of this lofty 
range lies a strip of country about oue-half the size of the State of New York, about 
110 miles wide and from 200 to 2r)0 miles long. In the southwestern portion of this 
country, lying near the Pacific and jutting close upon the Columbia River, is a clus- 
ter of high hills, and in the northwestern portion, on the peninsula formed by Puget 
Sound and the Paciiic, is the Olympic Mountains, another cluster rising to the height 
of 8,000 feet. In the north is Puget Sound, perhaps the most lieantiful inland sea in 
the world, with its lofty wooded shores, its innumerable windings and islands, and 
its deep, clear water. The shores of this sound are high and rocky. But few streams 
flow into it, and these chiefly on its eastern side. In the southeastern part the Cow- 
litz River flows along the base of the Cascades in a southerly direction and empties 
into the Columbia. But in the central part, rising among the hills in the south- 
western corner and flowing first east then north, so that the Kalama Branch of the 
Northern Pacific passe-s along it, and then west, is a magnificent stream, the Chehalis 
River, emptying into Gray's Harbor and so into the Pacific Ocean. This is the largest 
river in Western Washington. It is the only river of any size not subject to sum- 
mer floods caused by the melting of mountain snows. This river, with itstributaiies 
and including Gray's Harbor, drains a basin of some 3,500 Sf^nare miles ; (the map 
sliows sixty townships, and a greater amount may fairly be reckoned as part of this 
river valley). As will be seen, Chehalis County is the very heart of western Wash- 
ington, and it is the heart in a very true sense, in that all that is desirable in west- 
ern Washington is centered here in its best conditiou, and here are the means, the 
forces that are to give life and growth to all the rest. 



'' From October 1.3 to November 13, thirteen rainy days, thirteen fair days, and five 
cle.ar days ; from November 13 to December 13, twelve rainy days, thirteen fair, and 
four rain and shine; from December 13 to January 13, one day snow, six rain, three 
rain and shine, fourteen fair, and eight clear days; from Januarj'^ 13 to February 13, 
three days snow, fonr rain, two rain and shine, ten fair, and twelve clear days ; from 
February 13 to March 13, five days snow, three rain, one rain and shine, sixteenfair, 
and four clear days ; total for the winter, nine days of snow, thirty-eight rain, ten 
rain and shine, sixty six fair, and thirty clear days. Days are called clear when not 
a cloud a^ipears. During this time the range of the thermometer was : First month — 
lowest 40°, highest 65°, and the average 53i ; second month — lowest 34°, highest 55°, 
average 41|° ; third month — lowest 28°, highest 50°, average 37^° ; fourth month — 
lowest 9°, highest 45°, average 23,';° ; fifth month — lowest 27°, highest 42°, average 
3Gf°. The record of 9° above was the lowest point reached during the last seven 
years. There was one fall of snow that reached a depth of 6 inches. The record of 
lowest thermometer for the last seven years is: For l876-'77, 22°; for l877-'78, 20° ; 
for 1878-'79, 10° ; for 1879-'80, 10° ; for 1880-'81, 28°; 1881-'82, 20° ; 1883, 9°. 

" THE SOIL. 

" The soil of the uplands, or hills, is loamy, in places gravelly. It is quick, warm 
but not strong land as a rule. In some localities where upland clearing.s have been 
maile reports are given of large crops. It is better adapted to fruit and general gar- 
dening. Some of the hills are doubtless good land. It all grades ott" into bottom- 
land. It is difficult to clear for the immense growth of timber. But in this climate 
most of these hills will be profitably farmed. Indeed, almost anywhere clover and 
timothy grass will flourish luxuriantly. But it is the hutfom-lavd that is chiefly val- 
uable at present for farming. Thus far the most part is easily cleared, and is as good 
land as can be found anywhere. It will jiroduce good crops of almost anything, and 
its fertility is inexhaustible. One piece that has been cultivated almost continuously 



122 

for twenty years, with no manuring, is to-day as ricli as when first plowed. This land 
isall ni.iiio land. It is a mixture of alluvial wash and vo^^etable and auiuial matter. 
It is more like gardcu than tield land. A few acres will yield more than a quarter 
section of much of the land East. 

"The hottomlands in general are subject to winter overllow, though some of 
them rarely, if ever, are covered. They are apt to be broken bj^ channels which this 
overllow has made and by sloughs and streams which flow through. 

"There is much of this botfom-laud. Along each of the principal streams there 
are wide stretches of it, and along in each stream in this whole Chehalis country 
there is more or less. But as there are few quarter-sections across which some stream 
does not flow, so there are few which do not possess some of this bottom-land. 

"These bottom-lands that lie down toward the sea are subject to periodical over- 
flow by the tide, and there is a large amount of this about Gray's Harbor and the 
streams that empty into it. These are in places largely open and covered with a rank 
growth of wild grass. They are used now principally for pasture. But a dike from 
1 to 3 feet high would keep out this tide, and when so diked they are equal to the 
best of bottom-land. No better Innd can be found. 

"Ill view of tlie ])rece(]iiig (Inscription I am inclined to believe that in 
Washington and Oregon soil and climate are very favorable to the growth 
of a sugar beet of high saccharine strength. 

" The mildness of the winter is, though to a less degree than in Cali- 
fornia, favorable to the season of manufacture. With a wise and care- 
ful encouragement of the industry I have no hesitation in saying that 
the prospects for the development of an indigenous sugar industry in 
the extreme northwestern jiart of our country are decidedly bright. It 
is a field worthy the attention both of experimenters and capitalists." 

SOIL AND CLIMATE IN BOHEMIA. 

In respect of the soil in Bohemia best suited to the sugar-beet, John 
B. Howes, commercial agent, makes the following observations:* 

"The best soil for quality, as well as quantity of production, accord- 
ing to the experiments of Orth, are those that consist of mild, moist 
loam about 50 centimeters deep, then loam or marl 1 to 2 meters, and 
under this sand. Such soils, which are easy to cultivate, have a higli 
degree of absorption, can combine nourishments, and give the plant 
physically a good start. Such soils are called ' natural sugar-beet soils.' 

" It is possible to raise beets on soils that do not have all these quali- 
ties, but the crop will be the better the nearer this standard is ap- 
proached. 

"The conditions required for a good sugar-beet soil are — 

"(1) Depth, because the roots mostly take their nourishment from a 
depth of 30 centimeters, and the soil must therefore be loosened and 
contain nourishment up to this depth. 

" (2) Porousness of the subsoil, because it is impossible to cultivate a 
damp, cold soil at the right time. Such a soil will become cracked if 
very dry, and the young plants suffer, while the beets will contain little 
sugar. In such a case drainage must be employed. Clay soils can be 

*Keport to State Department, page 242. 



123 

imi^roved by iuaiiuriii,ij;",-l)y the use of lime, and drainage; light soils 
by mannriiig and loamy marl. 

"Leplay found that the heaviest beets will be raised in descendant 
snccession, from clay, lime, loam, and sand soils ; beets with the great- 
est ]>ercentage of sugar in lime, clay, sand, and loam soils; the most 
leaves in sand, clay, lime, and loam soils. According to experiments 
of Marek, the more moisture in the soil the greater will be the develop- 
ment of leaves. This influence is stronger in sand soil than in one of 
clay. The normal development of the root depends upon organic mat- 
ter in the soil. The more moistuie there is in the soil the looser the 
texture, the poorer the quality, and the less sugar will be in the beet. 

"The following soils are adai)ted for the culture of the beet, if they 
have a good subsoil : Loamy soils, mild, clayey, or sandy, and clay marl. 
Of clay soils, the mild and loamy ones; if the amount of chiy is ex- 
cessive, the soil must be made suitable by manuring. Strong clay soils 
are useless for beets, but clay marl soils are good. Sandy soils are 
least adapted to the cultivation of the sugar-beet, with the exception 
of loamy sand soil not deficient in humidity and the subsoil possessing 
enough water holding power. Lime soils are, with the exce{)tion of 
loamy lime soil, not good for beets. From moist soils are raised good 
quantities, but poor qualities. 

" The best locations for sugar-beet planting are on level oronly slightly 
sloping lauds, because work is done best on such lands, and it is im- 
possible for the beets to be swept away by heavy rains." 

In regard to climate. Agent Howes has collected the following data 
{op. cit. p. 242) : 

'' In Europe the sugar-beet is successfully i)lanted between the forty- 
seventh and tifty-fourtli degrees of northern latitude; in Germany, be- 
tween the fifty-first and fifty-fourth; in France, between the forty-sev- 
enth and fiftieth ; in Austria- Hungary-, between the forty-eighth and 
fiftieth ; and in Russia, between the forty-eighth and fifty-third de- 
grees. 

" Like all plants, the sugar-beet requires certain conditions of climate 
to arrive at perfection. 

"According to the experiments of Briera, director of the experimental 
station in Grussbach, Moravia, concerning the distribution of warmth 
and rain fall during the period of vegetation of the sugar-beet in the 
first period, i. e., in the first two months, the time of germinating, the 
daily temperature was 10.70° C. ; in the second period (the time of the 
development of the vegetative organs), IS.S*^ G.; and in the third period 
(in which the storage of the reserve substances takes place), 10.5° G. ; 
and during the whole vegetation, 15.3<^ G. 

"The total warmth in the first period was 050° G. ; in the second, 
1,150° G. ; and in the third, 1,000° G. 

" The rain-fall was in the first period 97 millimeters ; in the second. 



124 

114 millimeters; and in the third, 100 millimeters — together 311 milli- 
meters. 

''The sugar-beet needs much warmth and light, sunny days, and a 
certain amount of moisture. 

''The best climate for sugar-beets is the so-called 'wine climate,' 
with a temperature from 9° to 10° C. in April and May, 17° to 18° 0. 
in June and July, and 15° and 12° in August and September, respect- 
ively. 

"The sea-coast is not warm enough and has not enough sunny days 
in June and July to be successful for sugar-beet raising. 

" For the first period of vegetation it is necessary that a certain 
amount of winter moisture be in the ground, as the seeds need moisture 
to germinate. In the second period warmth and moisture is required 
for the production of roots and k'aves. In the third period, in which 
the saccharification goes on, dry warmth. If the days be sunny, the 
beets will become rich iu sugar ; but if this period be wet, the crop will 
be great in quantity, but poor in quality. If, after a dry summer, a 
warm and rainy fall follows, new leaves spring uj) at the cost of the 
sugar." 

The following observations on soil, culture, and fertilization will be 
found interesting in connection with the foregoing discussion.* 

"The cultural conditions to be regarded as of greatest importance in 
securing crops of maximum quantity and quality, when a section has 
been determined upon by a consideration of all other conditions, are 
choice of soil, etc., its physical character and chemical compositon, and 
the methods by which these may be modified or improved; the first by 
the mechanical methods of culture, and the second by the proper and 
judicious applications of fertilizers. After this will naturally follow the 
modes of planting and the care to be applied during the season of 
growth. 

" With reference to the choice of soil suited to the culture of the beet- 
root, opinions seem to differ somewhat, though the i)rinciples which ap- 
pear to govern them tend to the same end. The illustrious Chaptal,t as 
a result of his study of the plant and its requirements, arrived at the 
following conclusions : 

"Soils which are dry, calcareous, light, etc., are not well snitCfl to the beet. 

" Strong clay soils have little aptitiule for the cnltiue of this root. 

"In order that the root may ])rosper, it needs, iu general, a mellow, fertile soil, the 
arable stratum of which shonld be 12 to 15 inches thick. 

"The root succeeds more or less well in all arable soils, but the products vary 
wonderfully according to the uature of the soils. 

" Basset I considers that "afresh soil, rather sandy orsilico-calcareous 
than too calcareous or argillaceous, rich in humus, and deep," should be 

* McMurtrie op. cit., ])p. 95-117) 

t Quoted by Basset in Guide Pratique du Fabricaut de Sucre, 

t Ibid. 



125 

chosen. Briem,* in his late work on beet-root culture and sug<]ir manu- 
facture, says, of the physical character of the soil to be chosen, " it 
should not be too light uor too moist; it should be bare; its subsoil 
permeable; it should be warm, free from stones, calcareous, and should 
contain humus." Deherain,t from the results of his experiments and 
investigations at Grignon, publishes as one of the conclusions arrived 
at that the nature of the soil does not seem to exercise any sensible ac- 
tion upon the development of the beet, for the same results were ob- 
tained in soils consisting of pure silica, of calcareous matter, or of a 
mixture of calcareous matter and clay. 

Vivien J found iu traveling through the provinces of the Rhine, Han- 
over, Brandenburg, and Saxony in Germany, that, though in each sec- 
tion there is a wide difference iu the nature of the soil, there is a par- 
ticularly marked homogeneity in the character of the beets. 

" Vilmoriu considers that any good soil that will grow wheat and corn 
and has an arable stratum of 12 to 15 inches, will be well suited to this 
culture; that where chalk exists in large proportion the yield will be 
small, but the juice pure. All soils should be thoroughly drained, so 
that the tap root may not find stagnant water in the subsoil. 

" Notwithstanding the differing notions expressed above, it will appear 
that the physical characters of the soil which tend to render it best suited 
to the cultivation of the beet are porosity of surface and subsoil, to admit 
of drainage of superfluous water and of free circulation of the air, and 
power of absorbing and holding in a condition convenient for ready as- 
similation the elements of plant-focd existing within it or coming from 
external sources. Unless the supply of these elements be continuous 
and regular, a purely sandy soil would be undesirable. If no means 
were provided for the removal of surplus water which might be found 
in a purely clay soil, or to so improve its condition as to admit of free 
circulation of air as well as water, it is too heavy, and becomes abso- 
lutely useless. The same is true of purely calcareous soils, since the 
same unfavorable conditions would prevail, though perhaps to not quite 
the same extent. These soils would also be unsuited to the plant itself, 
because they would not admit of the free progress of the tap root nor of 
the lateral fibrous roots in their search for nutrition oriu following the 
natural course of development, and, as will appear later on, these con- 
ditions have a powerful influence upon the ultimate yield of sugar from 
the surface cultivated. But if the sandy soil described be mixed with 
either or both of the others mentioned, and with humus, in suitable 
proportions, the conditions most favorable to the maintenance of a reg- 
ular and plentiful supply of food, the healthy condition of the root, and 
its consequent normal development, will be assured. 

* See Critique iu Jourual des Fabricants de Sucre, 1879. 

t Anualea Ajirouomiques. 

t Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1876, 27 March. 



12G 

" The chemical character of the soil is of quite as great importance as 
its physical condition. For the proper development of the beet for the 
production of sugar it should contain in a suitable and assimilable form 
all the elements usually necessary to the normal existence and develop- 
ment of plants, and attention must therefore be had to the conditions 
in which these substances exist in the soil. Phosphoric acid, potash, 
nitrogen compounds, and lime are especially necessary to the life of the 
plant, but if these exist in insoluble combinations on the one hand, or in 
forms suitable for assimilation but in excessive quantities on the other, 
they will either be useless in the economy of nutrition in the tirst in- 
stance, or will stimulate the plant to abnormal growth unsuited to the 
ready extraction of sugar in the second. It is this branch of the sub- 
ject that has occupied the attention and enlisted the energies of scien- 
tists and landed proprietors, and the influence of the different combina- 
tions of the various leading elements of plant-food, and more especially, 
during later years, of nitrogen in the soil, has constituted the subject of 
frequent and continued investigation. 

''Basset* says: 

"Soils charged with mineral salts are iujurious to the culture of the beet for ex- 
traction of sugar, and are only suite^l to the cultivation of beets for distillation. In 
fact, we know that the beet easily absorbs saline matters and that the alkaline salts 
constitute one of the greatest obstacles to sugar extraction. 

"New ground, or that lately cleared of forest, should not be applied 
to the culture of the beet, and it is considered by good authorities to be 
detrimental to the quality of the crop to make use of lands for this pur- 
pose that have not been under continued cultivation at least ten or fif- 
teen years. This insures an almost complete removal of the nitrates 
and the organic matters containing nitrogen, which are always present 
in large quantities in new soils, and which it is well known exert an' 
iajurious influence upon the quality of the root. 

"Basset, in his work,t gives elaborate tables of analyses of soils to 
show the chemical composition of those most favorable to the culture, 
but we will here give the more succinct tables of Champion and Pellet,| 
showing the composition of soils from different departments in the north 
of France in which beetroot culture is most extensively carried on, and 
and of one from a similar section of Kussia. Those numbered 1, li, 
3 yielded beets of fair quality, containing 12 to 14 parts of sugar per 100 
of juice, while that numbered 4 gave beets of bad quality. The last, 
that from Eussia, is quoted by Walkhoff as being well suited to beet 
culture. 



* Guide Pratique du Fabricaut de Sucre. t Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre, 

i La Bettrave a Sucre, p. 82, 



127 



Organic matters 

Silica 

AliMiiiua 

Liiiio 

PcroxiiU', of iron 
lMio.si>horic add 

r.)tasli 

Soda 

('arbdiiic acid... 
Otlior matters .. 

Total nitrogen . 

Anmiouia 

Sand 

Clay 



1. SoniiiK;. 



5. 600 
81. 800 
7.210 
0.570 
2.880 
0. 070 
0. 0(i4 
0.085 
0.4(10 
1.351 



100. 000 



0.088 

0. oi:i 

72. 100 
22. 000 



2. Iv^jra. 



4.42 



0.476 

6. 008 
0. 130 
0.600 



i: 0.000 



0.140 

0.040 

85. 000 

9.000 



4.840 

82. 500 
8. 620 
0.420 
2.180 
0.077 

0.140 

0. 700 
1.523 



100. 000 



0.120 
0. 030 

80. 000 
14.000 



3. Aisuo. i 4. Soniuio. 



.5.70 
79.00 
8.50 
0.25 
5. .50 

Trace. 

Trace. 



2.85 



100. 000 



0.1.54 
0. Olii 
62. 000 
30.000 



8.200 
42. 000 
3.91 
23. 220 
2.310 
0. 385 
0. 044 
0. 058 
19. 050 
0. 823 



100. 000 

0.270 

0.010 

35. 770 

10 to 12 



5. Kaiiiiof- 
ska .soil. 



C.207 
72. 099 
!t. 974 
1.930 
2. 834 
0.uu3 
2. .1,7 
0.914 
1.280 
2. 022 

100. 000 

0.234 



"The same autbors quote Schiibler as giving the foUowiug as the 
general composition of good soil for beet culture : 

Clay : 33. IJOO 

Siliceous sand 63. 000 

Calcareous sand 1. 200 

Calcareous earth, humus 2.500 

" We now come to the study of the means employed to supply the 
deficiencies of plant-food in the soil, due either to the natural condition 
or the exhaustion by crops, and the influence of the means employed 
upon the production of rich and valuable roots. 

"The general composition of the beet root and leaves is given by 
Champion and Pellet, as follows : They state that for rich beets the 
weight of leaves is about 50 per cent, that of the root, and 25 to 30 per 
cent, that of roots containing 9 to 11 per cent, of sugar. 

"The table shows the general composition of leaves and roots of beets 
containing 15 per cent, of sugar : 



Water 

Nitroji' 
Aslios 



Per cent. 

74.00 

0.40 

0.80 



In dry 
matter. 



Per cent. 



1.55 
3.10 



In Icavea. 



Per cent. 

83.50 

0. 38 

4.35 



In dry 
matter. 



Per cent. 



2.30 
26 20 



" For a yield of 20 French tons* ot'beetsand 10 French tons of leaves 
l^er acre, there would be removed from the soil: 



20 tons roots.. 
10 tons loaves - 



Nitrogen. 



Pounds. 

178.1 
84.8 



Total ashes. 



Pounds. 
3.56. 2 
934.1 



*2,200 pounds. 



128 



"Or, for an aveiaj;e riehiicss of 11 per cent, of sugar: 



i"^-"°t«- iatS. F-^i^^^^^- 



In dry 
matter. 



1 Per cent. I Fer cent. ' Per cent. ' Per cent. 

Water 1 82.00 I | 84.:0 i 

JSTitioiicn r. 1 0.25 1.39 0.38 1 2.45 

Aslas 0.95 5.30 3.'85 24.8 



"Or, for a yield of 20 Freucli tous per acre : 



20 tons I riots . 
(i tons leaves. 



Total 
nitrogen. 



Pound.<i. 

110 

50 



Total aahea. 



Pounds. 
418 
508.2 



"The composition of tlie ashes of the leaves and roots referred to 
1,000 parts green matter is as follows: 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Chlorine. 

Sulphuric acid 

Sliea 

Pho.sphoi ic acid 

Undeterniined 

Total mineral matter 

Total solids 

Nitrogen 



Beets supposed to 
contain 10 per 
cent, sugar. 



Leaves. 



9.23 
3.23 
3. .50 
2.81 
3. 23 
1..'-.0 
0.31 
2.23 
2.03 



28.07 

138,0 

3.3 



Koots. 



2.93 
0. 51 
0.42 
0.38 
0.57 
0.22 
0.34 
0.59 
0.16 



6.12 

167.5 

2.5 



Beets supposed to 
contain 15 per 
cent, sugar. 



Leaves. Boots 



10.0 
3.47 
3.75 
3. 03 
3.47 
1.03 
0.33 
2.40 
1.92 



30.0 

140.0 

3.8 



2.66 
0.45 
0.38 
0. 33 
0. 50 
0.19 
0.30 
0.51 
0.13 



5.45 
240.0 
4.0 



" From these figures we may easily determine tlie quantity of the dif- 
ferent constituents removed by average crops. Supposing the average 
to be 20 tons of roots per attre, the cousumi)tion of the difterent con- 
stituents would be, for beets of differing richness, as shown in the fol- 
lowing table : 



129 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Chlorine 

Sulphuric acid.. 

Silica 

Phosphoric acid 
Undetermined . . 

Total 

Dry matter 

Nitrogen 



For beets contain- 
ing 10 per cent. 



Six tons 
leaves. 



121.8 
42.6 
46.2 
36.1 
42.6 
19.8 
4.09 
29.43 
26.79 



369. 41 
1,821.6 
43.56 



Total. 



Twenty 

tons 

roots. 



128.9 
22.4 
18.48 
16.72 
:'5. 08 

9.68 
14.96 
25.96 

7.04 



248. 32 

7, 370. 00 

110.0 



250.7 
65.0 
64.68 
42. 82 
47.68 
29.48 
19.05 
55.39 
33.83 



628. 50 



For beets contain- 
ing 15 per cent, 
sugar. 



Ten tons 
leaves. 



220.0 
76.34 
82. 50 
66.66 
76.34 
35.86 
7.26 
52.80 
31.24 



651. 00 
3,080 
83.6 



Twenty 
tons 
roots. 



337. 04 
96.14 
89.22 
81.18 
98.34 
44.22 
20.46 
75.24 
36.94 



888. 18 



Total. 



117. 04 
19.8 
16.72 
14.52 
22.0 
8.36 
13.2 
22.44 
5.70 



239. 78 
10, 560 
176.0 



" In France the general sources of supply of the various nutritive 
principles for the restoration of those removed by the crops, or to pro- 
vide those required, are found in stable manure, seed cakes, animal 
wastes, woolen scraps, sulphate of ammonia, nitrates, superphosphates 
made from bones and minerals, potash salts, gypsum, and the scums 
and refuse from the sugar factories. Of all these substances, that which 
combines in itself in the highest degree all the elements of plant-food, 
and which is naturally the most economical, is the stable manure pro- 
duced on the farm, and this being generally the result of keeping cattle 
to be fed upon the pulps from the factory is one of the sources of real 
profit to the producer. 

"Joulie gives the following as the composition of French stable- 
manures of average quality, estimated in pounds per ton of 2,000 
pounds: 



Manure 

of fifteen 

oxen. 



Manure 

of 
ten cows. 



Water 

Organic matter. 
Mineral matter. 



Total . 



Nitrogen: 

Nitric 

Ammoniacal. 
Organic 



Total . 



Phosphoric acid 

Sulphuric acid 

Chlorine 

Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide of iron 

Sand and silica 

Carbonic acid and loss. 



1, 492. 576 
406. 044 
101.380 



1, 398. 656 
476. 928 
124.416 



2, 000. 000 



2, 000. 000 



0.000 

1.880 

11. 822 



0.000 

1.334 

11. 950 



13. 702 



13.284 



5.288 
3.010 
2.740 

19. 104 
5.164 

14. 538 
3.770 
1.304 

39. 888 
6.574 



Total . 



101.388 



3.142 
3.000 
4.000 

20. 8.52 
6.284 

14. 060 
3.478 
1.250 

60. 913 
7.438 



124.416 



25474— Bull. 27- 



130 

"A comparison of this table with that giveu before will show that in 
order to supply in stable manure the required nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid for the production of an average crop of 20 tons per acre, it will 
be necessary to apply at least 20 tons of stable manure to the same area. 
But this quantity will contain a considerable excess of alkaline matters 
over the quantity demanded by the crop, and will only tend to increase 
the saline constituents of the root at the expense of the sugar. This 
exeess of mineral matters is often used to explain the i)roduction of 
roots of low sacchariae value. Let us bring together the figures for 
the constifcueiTts of plant-food mentioned, as found in 20 tons of stable 
manure from cows and as found In the yield of an acre giving 20 tons 
of beets: 



Nitrogen 

Phosphoric acid 

Potash r? 

Soda'.. 

Lime 



Manure. 



Pounds. 
265. 680 
62. 840 
417. 040 
135.680 
281. 200 



Beet crop. 



259.6 
75.24 

337. OA 
96.14 
89.22 



"In practical work, therefore, it is found better to reduce the quantity 
of stable manures applied, and to supplement them with the other sub- 
stances mentioned above. A comparison of the productive influences 
exerted by stable manures and by the artificial compounds usually em- 
ployed to supplement it, or as substitutes fo^it, will be found in the fol- 
lowing table, showing the results otf the experiments made by Professor 
Deherain at the Grignon agricultural school, working with the Yilmorin 
improved race of beets. These results are interesting as showing the 
advantage of moderate applications of stable manures, and the choice 
that should be made in the supplementary compoands that should be 

applied : 

Influence of manitrca on yield in weight and richrvess in sugar.* 



No. of 

the 
plots. 



Manure distributed per acre. 



Yield per 
aece. 



Sugar in 
juice. 



Sugar pro- 
duced per 
acre. 



9 tons stable manure , ^ 

18 tons stable manure •--- 

36 tons stable manure 

36 h)ns stable manure and 8fi0.7 pounds superphosphate of 
linre 



Without manure - 

356 pounds nitrate of soda, distributed in one sowing , 

356 pounds nitrate of soda, distributed in four sowings 

356 pounds nitrate of soda and 356 pounds superphospato, in 
one sowing. ., - 

356 pounds nitrate of soda and 356 pounds superphosphate, in 
four sowings 

1,068 i)ounds nitrate of soda, distributed in four sowings 

356 pounds sulpliate of ammonia, distributed in one sowing.. 

356 pounds sulphate of ammonia, distributed in four sowings 

356 pounds sulphate of ammonia and 356 pounds suporphos- 
phato, in one sowing 

356 pounds sulphate of ammonia and 356 pounds superphos- 
phate, in four sowings 

856 pounds superphosphate without nitrogen or manure 

1,006 pounds sulphate of ammonia, in four sowings 



Tons. 
9. 2414 
8. 9803 
8.4878 

8. 722'0 
6. 1980 
8. 4378 
8. 7660 

9. 1220 

9.9235 
8. 5230 
8. 4378 
7. 7985 

6. 5860 

6.9360 
^7. 5205 
6. 4970 



Per cent. 
12.67 
12.58 
11.28 

12.26 
14.58 
12.75 
12.75 

13. 23 

13.08 
12.43 
13.89 
12.75 

13.08 

13.08 
13.24 
12.42 



Pounds. 
2,351.80 
2, 228. 60 

1, 896. 59 

2, 137. 78 

2, 257. 04 
2, 184. 01 
2, 284. 70 

% 415. 4(6 

2, 568. 24 
2, 367. 40 
2, 336. 25 
1, 962. 45 

1, 722. 15 

1, 827. 17 

1, yyo. 93 

1, 093. 57 



"Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, November M, 1878. 



131 

" Joulie* also found, iu bis experiments with stable manure and the 
different fertilizing compounds made according to his formula, that the 
largest yield was obtained with the complete manure containing all the 
leading elements. The next best yield was secured with the complete 
manure without potash ; the next with nitrate of soda alone. The 
yields with the others decreased regularly in the order in which they 
are named. Without phosphate and without lime ; with sulphate of 
ammonia ; with stable manure ; with nothing ; with guano. From his 
experiments he concludes as follows : 

"(1) The manure especially suited to the beet, and and which establishes the best 

conditions, as well for the yield per acre as for quality, is the complete manure B, of 

which the following is the composition : 

Per cent. 

Nitric acid 6.500 

Til -u ■ ■ 1 S assimilable ) ^ enn 

Phosphoric acid, j.^^^j^jl^^^ J 6.500 

Potash 8.000 

Soda 9.000 

Lime 14.800 

Water, sulphuric acid, silica, and other accessory elements 55.200 

Total 100.000 

The nitrogen corresponds to ammonia 8. 000 

The phosphoric acid corresponds to tricalcic phosphate 14.200 

"(2) In soils provided with jiotashit (the manure B) is advantageouslyreplaced by 
the manure F,t which difi'ers only in the substitution of soda for potash. 



Denomination of 


Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric acid. 


Potash. 


Soda. 


Lime. 


Acces- 
sory ele- 
ments. 


manure. 


Ammo- 
niacal. 


Nitric. 


Total. 


Assim- 
ilable. 


Insol- 
uble. 


Total. 


Miiuure A complete. 


4.14 


2.36 
6.50 
4.00 
2.50 

6.50 


6.50 
6.50 
4.00 
2.50 

6.90 

9.00 

3.00 
6.50 


5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
8.00 

5.00 

9.00 

14.00 
5.00 
5.00 

12.00 


1.-50 

1.50 
1.50 
2.50 

1.50 

2.00 

2.00 
1.50 
1.50 

2.00 


6.50 

6.50 

6.50 

10.50 

6.50 

11.00 

16.00 
6.50 
6.50 

14.00 


♦ 8.00 

8.00 

14.00 

8.00 


9.' 66' 


17.00 
14.80 
19.00 
20.00 

19.50 

12.00 

22.00 
15.80 
20.00 

20.00 


62.00 
55 20 






56 50 






59.00 


E without 

' potash - . . 

E con cen- 


6.50 
9.00 

3.00 


67.50 






68.00 


E without 
potasli No. 
2 






59.00 


F without 

potash . . . 

G without 


10.00 
5.00 


14.00 
3.00 

1.50 


57.20 
60.50 


G without 
nitrogen 
No. 2 








59.50 













* Guide pour I'achat et I'Emploi des Eugrais Chimiques, pp. 250 and 251. 

tThe conclusions of Professor Joulie will be better understood if reference is made 
to the accompanying table, showing the composition of the fertilizers, made accord- 
ing to his various formulas. 



132 

"(3) These two manures shonlrl be applied at the rate of 400 pounds per aero upon 
soils in good condition and without stable manures. 

"(4) Stable manure, applied at the rate of 20 to 25 tons per acre in the same year 
that the crop is grown, constitutes a bad condition, which it is prudent to avoid. It 
is better to reduce the stable manure to 10 or 12 tons and supplement it with a suitable 
addition of chemical manures. Thus putting the minimum of salts, particularly of 
potash, at the disposition of the roots, a better quality will be obtained. 

"(5) If stable manure be applied at the rate of 10 to 12 tons per acre, which rate it 
has been found advisable not to exceed, the manure F without potash should prefer- 
ably be employed at the rate of 200 pounds for good soils and of 400 pounds for poor 
soils. We thus avoid excess of potash, and establish between the useful elements an 
equilibrium favorable to the crop. 

"(6) If fossil phosphates have been added to the stable manure after the method 
suggested by Baron P. Thenard, the manure F may be replaced by nitrate of soda at 
the rate of 260 pounds per acre for good soils and a maximum of 350 pounds for poor 
soils. 

"(7) In no case should salts of potash (nitrate, sulphate, or chloride) be added to 
stable manure, which is always sufiQciently rich in this element. 

" From tliese and later experiments Mous. Joulie concluded, in gen- 
eral, concerning nitrogen of various compounds in its relation to the 
beet root and the influence upon its sugar content, that the nitrogen 
of the nitrates is more effective than that of ammonia, which in its turn 
is more valuable than that of organic matter. 

"This difference in the elements of plant-food has also been noticed 
and determined by other workers, who have arrived at conclusions 
quite as marked as those of Joulie just given. Pagnoul* states that 
experiments made at Arras and elsewhere lead to the following conclu- 
sions concerning the use and abuse of nitrogenous compounds : 

"(1) Abuse of all nitrogenous compounds, nitrates, stable-manures, seed-cake, etc., 
is always injurious to the quality of the beet. 

"(2) Excess of nitrates by application before sowing is less injurious than excess of 
nitrogenous manures of organic origin. In fact the first are at once absorbed by the 
youngplantfavoringthedevelopmeut of leaves. On the contrary, the others act slowly 
and in decomposing may undergo nitric fermentation, which, favored by meteorological 
conditions, such as probably existed in 1875 to 1876, creates in the soil an abundance 
of nitrates, the retarding action of which impoverishes the root in the last days of 
growth. 

" Concerning stable-manure, it is a fact that there is no necessity for prohibiting its 
use, because growers are generally wanting in it, and they will not be tempted to use 
it in excessive quantity to the same extent as they may be induced to use the mineral 
manures. But it is useful to show that this excessive use, if it were possible, would 
be even more fatal than the use of nitrates, as regards the quality of the root. 

"(3) For the same reason the use of nitrates after sowing, and especially in the 
months of August and September, is absolutely bad, and may be characterized as 
fraudulent. 

" (4) The abuse of nitrogenous manures, nitrates, and others is much less fatal when 
used upon rich varieties, and roots closely planted than upon poor varieties and roots 
cultivated at greater distances. 

" (5) The-causes to which the bad quality of the beets in our region (department of 
Pas-de-Calais) should be attributed are » * *» the too great richness of our soils 
in nitrogenous matters, the abuse of manures, and the application of nitrates after 
sowing. 

* Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, 1878, October 13. 



133 

"Concerning stable-manures and the other nitrogenous manures used, 
M. Georges,* in a lecture on beet-root culture, advises that the quantity 
of stable-manure should not exceed 10 to 15 tons per acre, since this quan- 
tity will supply sufficient of salts for the needs of the plant. Nitrogen 
being the deficient constituent, should be supplied by some very soluble 
and easily-assimilable compound, such as from 250 to 350 pounds per 
acre of nitrate of soda, with an addition of a like quantity of superphos- 
phate of lime, the latter element especially intervening to increase the 
richness in sugar. The prejudice against nitrate of soda is unjust. Ju- 
diciously applied it is useful. Only its abuse is disastrous, but neither 
more nor less than the excessive use of all others, and even stable-ma- 
nure worked into the soil previous to sowing; it hastens the vegetation 
of the plant at the start and helps it through the first stages of growth. 
When it is exausted, the stable-manures, by their slow decomposition, 
supply the subsequent demands of the plant. But nitrate of soda should 
not be applied during the growth of the plant, because it may then re- 
main in nature in the adult beet, which will not have time to elaborate 
it and secure all the useful effect. Sulphate of ammonia, with an equal 
quantity of nitrogen seems to be less favorable than nitrate of soda, be- 
cause it is a salt which tends to rise to the surface in the soil, while the 
other descends to an equal extent. Other matters, such as seed-cakes, 
woolen wastes, etc., may be substituted for the nitrates, but they should 
in all cases be worked into the soil before sowing, that they may have 
time to decompose in advance and may be thoroughly mixed through 
the entire arable stratum. 

"These ideas expressed by M. Georges were reiterated by M. Drouyn 
de l'Huys,t and express the views of all scientists and cultivators in 
France. But while all admit the value of the judicious application of 
the nitrates, it appears also to be the universal opinion that it should be 
accompanied by the application of a corresponding quantity of the 
phosphates, which have a tendency to counteract any prejudicial influ- 
ence that the nitrates may exert by hastening the maturity of the plant 
and increasing its sugar content. This fact has been very nicely elabo- 
rated by Professor Maercker, of Halle, in a lecture lately delivered upon 
the subject of beet culture, an abstract of which may be found in the 
Journal des Fabricants de Sucre. He says it is a well-accepted fact that 
strong doses of nitrogenous manures are injurious to the beet crop, in 
that it increases the weight of the non-saccharine contents and reduces 
the sugar. The discredit into which the use of nitrates has fallen is due 
to its abuse and the manner of applying it. The difficulty appeared to 
be to determine the quantity to use and the best time to apply it. When 
applied too late it retards ripening. Applied in spring the plants de- 
velop vigorously in leaves and root and the period of growth is length- 
ened. So strongly nitrogenous manures always produce growth. 

* La Sncrerie Indigene, 1878. 

t Compte- rendu dea Stances du CongrSa Agricole et Sucr^ire teau h. Compi^gne 
Mai, 1877. 



134 

"But the sug:ar-beet must ripen to accumulate sugar within it. Its 
growth should therefore be arrested to admit of ripening, which late 
distribution of nitrates prevents. At Magdeburg part is applied in the 
fall and the remainder before the preparation of the soil in spring. 
Heavy doses of strongly nitrogenous manures also necessitate heavy 
doses of phosphoric acid to annihilate the injurious effect of an excess 
of nitrogen. Phosphoric acid applied in large quantity induces early 
ripening of the plant. A mellow, permeable, clay soil may receive doses 
that would be injurious to a cold soil. 

"Pagnoulhas developed by his researches and observations that phos- 
phoric acid gives varying results. In some soils no appreciable effect 
can be noticed, while in others its use has been found very favorable, 
and these differences are attributed to the greater or less proportion of 
phosphoric acid already existing in the soil. litotes should therefore be 
kept of the effects of various manures in order to avoid unnecessary 
expense in their application. M. Decrombecque considers that in all 
cases the i)hosphoric acid in the soil should be increased as the nitrog- 
enous principles increase, and Woussen considers phosphoric acid a 
corrective for the deleterious inflneuces of nitrates, because upon soils 
where nitrate of soda has been applied in large doses it is only neces- 
sary to increase the proportion of phosphates of lime to secure good 
maturation of the crop which would otherwise remain green. 

"Pellet* has advanced some interesting notions concerning the com- 
parative values of the different elements of plant-food in their relation 
to the production of sugar in the beet, deduced from the study of analy- 
ses of different plants obtained by various persons in their experiments. 
Lawes and Gilbert, discussing the analyses of wheats grown upon the 
Eothamstead farm, and of French wheats analyzed by Boussingault, 
conclude that wheat scarcely admits of a change in the composition of 
its ashes, whatever may be the composition of the fertilizers applied ; 
the same is true of potatoes. 

" But Pellet finds that the beet, on the contrary, may grow with equiv- 
alent substitutions of the alkalies necessary to the formation of sugar, 
so that, as shown by the experiments of Joulie, soda may be found in 
the ash of some beets in the same quantity as potash, while in others 
the. quantity of potash is seven times that of soda. This substitution 
may also be noticed between lime and potash, but experience shows that 
though the alkalies may thus substitute each other, and lime, by equiv- 
alents, certain other bodies, such as phosphoric acid, will not admit of 
being replaced. The experiments of Champion and Pellet also show 
that in all plants we may observe a relation between the total weight of 
ashes and the special organic matters for which the plant is cultivated. 
Thus in wheat between the starch and total ash, and in the beet between 
the sugar and total ash. They construct the following table, showing 

* Journal des Fabricants de Sucpe, October 2, 1878. 



135 

in general that for the formation of 100 pounds of sugar in beets, the 
roots and leaves in their development must consume — 
1 to 1.20 pounds of phosphoric acid. 
5 to 6 jiounds of potash. 
1.5 to 2 pounds of soda. 
1.5 to 1.6 pounds of lime. 
1.2 to 1.4 pounds of magnesia. 
2.7 to 3.5 pounds of nitrogen. 

" Excess of all may be present in the soil, but if phosphoric acid be 
wanting sugar will not be produced, while if lime is wanting it will be 
replaced by potash or soda or magnesia, and this rule h43lds good for the 
other alkalies. The author therefore concludes that 1 of phosphoric acid 
corresponds to 100 of sugar, while 5 to 6 of potash corresponds to the 
same amount, and consequently phosphoric is worth 5 or 6 times more 
than potash in the formation of sugar, if potash replaces no other alka- 
lies ; in other words, if a soil be wanting .in 60 pounds of assimilable 
potash per acre, there will be a deficit of 1,000 pounds of sugar, while 
for the same deficit only 10 pounds of assimilable phosphoric acid need 
be wanting. Phosphoric acid he considers a non-dominant but iadis- 
pensable element or base for the formation of sugar in the beet. 

" Reasoning from these data, they conclude that without experiment, 
but by examination of the average composition of the ashes and of the 
quantity of nitrogen in the plant, ^d comparing the total weight of the 
different constituents with that of the given proximate principle to be 
produced, for instance, sugar in the beet and starch in wheat and pota- 
toes, it is possible, they say, to determine the order in which the ele- 
ments of plant-food are indispensable for each plant. Thus, for the beet 
they range : 1, phosphoric acid ; 2, lime or magnesia ; 3, nitrogen , 4, 
potash or soda. On the other hand, the order for wheat is : 1, lime or 
magnesia; 2, potash ; 3, phosphoric acid, etc. These are facts of great 
importance in the economy of providing supplies of plant-food, and they 
will aid greatly in the selection of the compounds to be employed for 
the fertilization of various crops. 

" From what precedes and what we learn from the long-established 
practices followed in France in the application of fertilizers to the land 
on which beets are to be produced, it appears that nitrogenous organic 
compounds insoluble in water should be worked into the soil a long time 
in advance of the crop, and that to enjoy a beneficial result from their 
use they should be distributed at least during the autumn preceding the 
season of planting, and for stable-manures it is preferable that they be 
given to a preceding crop, which in France is generally oats or potatoes. 

" Stohmann* says it is generally recognized as a rule that the sugar- 
beet should never be cultivated upon a fresh mauwre or barnyard ma- 
nure, because this system of culture gives a large yield in weight, but 
roots so rich in foreign matters that they can not be worked with j)rofili. 

* Journal des Fabricauts de Suere, November 20, 1878. 



, 136 

The beet should always form the second rotation when the manure is 
strong. 

" Other organic nitrogenous compounds, such as seed cakes, refuse 
animal matters, and even ammonia salts, may be applied in the fall or 
in the very early spring, while the nitrates, which are more soluble, may 
be applied either immediately before or immediately after plautiug. 

" In no case should the latter be applied during the period of growth, 
on accouut of its influence, as shown by numerous experiments, to re- 
tard the time of ripening and the consequent maximum development of 
sugar. 

" The quantity of stable manure per acre that may be applied to land 
to produce the most favorable effect seems in France to be from 8 to 15 
tons, according to the character of the soil, and it is generally more 
profitable to use a smaller quantity and supplement it with nitrates and 
phosphates. The value of lime in its relations to the beet is no less 
than for other crops. Its disintegrating influence upon the nitrogenous 
organic matters is as important as its power to take the place of other 
alkalies which may be wanting. In fact, on account of this property, 
many of the most intelligent growers are inclined to use it, and by means 
of it to av^oid in the juice many of the more objectionable soluble salts 
that the alkalies are likely to introduce. Another important considera- 
tion is its low market value, and the convenience of its application. 
At the same time, deficiencies of the other alkalies in the soil should 
not be overlooked, and they should be in all cases made up. 

" It is scarcely necessary to further call attention to the importance 
and value of the phosphates in connection with this crop, after all that has 
been said. The^^ may be applied at all times, and many growers con- 
sider it of advantage to distribute small quantities with each working 
or hoeing. The general method employed, however, is to distribute it 
in advance of the last plowing, in the course of which latter operation 
it becomes distributed throughout the entire arable layer. But if ap- 
plied in the spring, it is considered by many that it should be deposited 
in the rows with the seed, and M. Derome is of the opinion that 100 to 
250 pounds per acre applied in the rows will produce quite as good 
effects as 400 to 800 applied broadcast. He concludes from all his ex- 
periments, the results of which are confirmed by those obtained by 
Corenwinder, Pagnoul, Ladureau, and others, that artificial fertilizers 
worked in with the plow will give an average of about 3 tons more of 
beets than the same quantity of manure applied on the surface and 
worked in with the cultivators. 

'•'The next consideration in the culture of the beet is the improvement 
of the physical qualities of the soil, and its preparation for the crop. 
The importance of drainage, etc., has already been referred to in the 
review of the inherent physical qualities of the soil which make it suited 
to this crop, and we may therefore proceed at once to the consideration 
of its manipulation to bring it to the favorable conditions before quoted. 



137 

And we shall first of all review the ideas advanced on this subject by 
some of the later writers who may be considered good authorities. 
Briem* says : 

"The development of the beet depends, in the first place, upon good preparation of 
the soil, and its continned and careful maintenance. A preparation carefully etfected 
brings about a mellowiug of the soil, access and change of air and water, destruction 
of weeds, and deep growth of the root. Deep plowing (with steam wliere this is pos- 
sible) is the first condition of a rational culture. This operation should be effected 
in advance of winter. Subsequent cultivation should not be spared. It improves 
the size and quality of the plant, and should be repeated as often and as long as the 
leaves will permit. The more the culture approaches that of a garden the more the 
quantitative and qualitative yield will be increased. 

"" According to Stohmann, beets do better after well-manured graminte. 
They naturally find place in rotation after wheat and barley. In some 
cases beets have been produced two years in succession, but this is 
possible only in exceptional cases. It is injudicious to recommend a 
rotation of beets of less than two years. Immediately after a crop of 
cereals, the ground is broken up. In the fall, plow as deeply as the 
nature of the soil will permit, and leave the field with the furrows thus 
exposed during the winter to atmospheric influences. In the spring, 
prepare the soil for sowing by means of the roller and harrow ; and in 
order not to lose the accumulated moisture of winter, avoid, as far as 
possible, jilowing again in the spring. 

" Vilmorint directs to begin with an ordinary plow in the fall, followed 
by a draining plow, so that the ground will be broken up to a depth of 
C to 8 inches ; and plow in the spring, and follow with harrow and 
roller. We can not more clearly give the prevailing opinions of French 
growers upon this matter of preparation of the soil than is expressed jn 
the discussion on the subject in the meetings of the agricultural and 
sugar congress held at Compi^gne in May, 1877, and published in the 
report of the procedingsj and I therefore present below a translation 
thereof: 

"M. Boursier said that it is, above all, necessary to work the ground and put it in 
such condition that it may be at the same time permeable and firm enough to adhere 
tto the roots. This is effected by deep plowing and energetic harrowiug and rolling. 
It would, nevertheless, be useful to elucidate this point, whether it is better to give a 
single deep plowing in autumn, followed by cultures with the scarifier and the harrow 
in spring, or to give several plow ings, the first in advance of winter and the second 
immediately preceding sowing. For himself he considered it better to give a single 
deep plowing in the fall or winter. 

"M. Debains prefers the system which consists in first giving a plowing to breali 
up the stubble, followed by another to bury the manure, and finally a third before 
sowing. * 

"M. Blin said there was no necessity to have an absolute system with this regard. 
It would be dangerous to give a deep plowing to land having a shallow stratum of 
arable soil. 

" M. Decrombecque had not adopted deep plowing, for the nature of his soils would 

* Journal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. 
t Ibid., February 27, 1878. 



138 

not permit it ; but in order to submit the greatest possible surface of soil to the bene- 
ficial atmospheric influences, he practiced the method of ridging. 

" M. Boursier explained that by deep plowing he did not mean absolutely to say 14 
to 16 inches; plowing is considered deep when it exceeds by 1 or 2 inches that of pre- 
ceding culture. A plowing of 10 inches would be deep in ground which had never 
been broken up more than 8 inches ; the depth is modified according to the soil. 

" M. Demot called attention to the excellent eff'ects of breaking up without dis- 
placing the subsoil (t. e., subsoiling). With this system the production is sensibly 
increased. The use of the draining plow should bo strongly recommended. 

" M. le. Vte. de Chezello Qalled attention to the favorable effect of deep plowing 
shown by the vegetation on the sides of ditches opened for drainage. 

" M. X. responded that this fact does not constitute an argument in favor of 

deep plowing. In fact, in drainage the vegetal earth is always returned to the top 
while plowing brings the subsoil to the surface, and if this is not vegetal (fertile) it 
is evident that the operation is defective. He also insisted upon the use of the drain- 
ing plow. 

"M. Barral recognized the fact that deepening the arable layer is always advan- 
tageous in the long run, and he recommended attacking the subsoil only with precau- 
tion, and after taking into account its chemical composition. In this connection, as 
in the most of agricultural questions, it is impossible fco fix an absolute principle, and 
it is always necessary to take account of circumstances. Besides it can not be denied 
that the beetjis one of the plants for which the depth of the arable layer is of the, 
greatest importance. 

"M. de Roug^ has proven the excellent effects of deep plowing upon the poor clay 
soils of the extremity of the Aisne. Like M. Boursier, he counseled plowing in au- 
tumn. During the winter the land to be sown in the spring should be impregnated 
with the substances of the air and submitted to the favorable atmospheric influences. 
Broad furrows should be made in^the first plowings given in autumn, because the 
more the earth is formed of large lumps the more the frost may penetrate by the wide 
spaces which separate them. 

"M. Ch. Gossin remarks two unfortunate effects in the plowing whieh inynediately 
precedes sowing the beet. (1) This plowing stirs up the soil in the interior. Now, 
th^bee* does not like light soils. (2) By this plowing wo bring to the surface a quan- 
tity of bad seeds, which germinate at the same time as the beet, and cover the ground 
with weeds, while if the ground be plowed in the fall, the seeds which germinate in 
the early spring are killed in the operations of culture which precede sowing. There- 
fore in the triple regard of contact, of atmospheric agents, of the mellowness and 
internal cohesion of the soil and cleanliness of the ground, fall or winter plowing 
should be advised. 

"The method of preparation followed in practice by M. H. Vilmorin 
is as follows : Begin plowing in November and break up the land 8 
or 10 inches, and follow this with a subsoil i>lowiug to a depth of 8 
or 10 inches more, so that the ground will be thoroughly stirred up to 
a total depth of at least 15 inches. During the progress of this 
work, and as far as possible, the artificial fertilizer employed is distrib- 
uted in the furrows before subsoiling. The ground is then left in the 
rough condition consequent upon plowing, and after that is twice 
plowed in spring, in Februasry and April. It is finally prepared for 
sowing by harrowing and rolling. 

" M. Champonnois considers it of advantage to prepare the ground in 
ridges before sowing, especially in working very shallow soils, in order 
to provide depth for the long tapering root, and put the ground in bet- 
ter condition for the circulation of air and water. He claims for his 



139 



method of culture that it is less costly than the ordinary method, and 
gives a better quantitative and qualitative result. In his experiments 
he obtained 40 tons of beets per acre having an average richness of 
18.50 per cent, and a co-efficient of purity above 83. 

" The results of his experiments in 1878 do not seem to be as good as 
those obtained in previous years, as showu by the following table : 



No. 1. 



Product per acre (tons)' 

Density of juice 

Per cent, of sugar 

Quotient of purity 



28. 300 
6°. 17 
11.37 
69.70 



No. 2. 



40. 450 
50.45 

■ 9.61 
66.69 



No. 3. 



22. 500 
6°. 75 
14.90 
83.94 



No. 4. 



11. 725 
70.5 
16.91 
86.0 



OBSERVATIONS. 



No. 1. 



No. 2. 



Seed, four kinds ; richest, 
12i per square meter ; 
fresh manure two 
months before sowing ; 
eartli beaten sliglitly 
on April 23, and after 
the beets had four 
leaves; complete ma- 
nure, 200 pounds per 
hectare : culture given 
regularly. 



Same culture and care ; 
four kinds of seeds 
productive of weight; 
at November 1 beets 
were in full growth 
due to kind of manure 
and time of its appli- 
cation ; beets short 
and rooty. 



No. 3. 



Manure well rotted ; 

E lowed in ridges ; well 
eaten by rolling ; ma- 
nure-residues of elu- 
tion containing salts 
and nitrogen of mo- 
lasses ; culture regu- 
lar througliout entire 
growth. 



No. 4. 



No manure plowed in ; 
chemical manure, 625 
pounds per acre, 
worked in ; sowed 
late ; culture contin- 
ued throughout vege- 
tation ; quality good ; 
quantity wanting, ex- 
plained Dy late solving. 



'' However, in this matter of preparing the soil, as in all others, it ap- 
pears that the grower, while following the general principles enunci- 
ated, must be guided by his own judgment and the character of the soil 
with which he has to deal. 

" Sowing is generally effected by means of a drill especially designed 
therefor, but any drill that will deliver the seed regularly and in suffi- 
cient quantity will satisfy every purpose. The forms employed in 
France vary with the different inventions, but the spoon drill is the 
most common. 

" The best time for sowing is considered to be the last week in April 
and the first fortnight in May, when the temperature should range from 
50° to 60° Fahr,, for at this temperature the seed will germinate most 
surely and most rapidly. The germinating faculty is materially in- 
creased by immersing it in water at 120° Fahr., and the beets produced 
are often richer in sugar on account of this treatment. 

"Messrs. Champion and Pellet* give the following results of an ex- 
periment in growing seeds soaked in water and those not soaked : 



No. 1, normal seed. 
No. 2, soaked seed. 



Date. 



August 31 

September 16. 
September 29. 

Augu.st 31 

September 16. 
September 29. 



Average 
weight. 



Orams. 

400 
460 
580 



500 
580 



Sugar in 
beets. 



Per cent. 
16.4 
13.4 
17.0 
16.9 
14.9 
17.2 



* La Bettrave h Sucre. 



140 

" Besides this, the beets produced with soaked seed had a better form 
than those from normal seeds. 

" Various solutions have been suggested to be employed for soaking 
the seed, among others water slightly acidulated with nitric acid. Hum- 
boldt suggested very dilute chlorine water, but Ducharte showed that 
this was of no value. 

''In many sections of France and Germany the juices flowing from 
the manure heaps are used for this purpose. They are diluted with an 
equal volume of water, and the seeds immersed in them for forty-eight 
hours. The seeds are after this time taken out, mixed with ashes, and 
passed over a screen. After this treatment they may be put in bags and 
kept in a cellar or other cool place until needed. When ready to be sown 
they must be quite dry on the surface, in order that they may not ad. 
here to each other iu sowing. Other solutions for the purpose have 
been used in France and Germany, the values of which, Bassett states, 
range in the order in which they are named : 

'^ 1. Mixture of urine and water in equal parts. 

"2. Purin, or manure juices, pure or dilute, for which may be substi- 
tuted ordinary water in which has been macerated guano, fowls' or 
pigeons' dung, so as to obtain a solution of a density of 1.015 or 1.020. 

" 3. Solution of nitrate of potash of 5 per cent. 

" 4. Solution of phosphate of ammonia of 2° B. 

" 5. Solution of superphosphate of lime 2 per cent. 

" 6. Solution of 2 to 2.5 parts chloride of lime in 100 of water. 

" 7. Dilute acid solutions of 1 to 1^ per cent., prepared only with 
hydrochloric, sulphuric, or phosphoric acids. 

" Solutions of nutritive matters are considered more favorable to the 
purpose than pure water, because the latter in prolonged soaking will 
often remove from the seeds some of their soluble constituents. The 
length of time during which the soaking should be continued might vary 
somewhat, according to the temperature, but it is generally confined to 
forty-eight hours, and twenty -four are often considered sufficient. Bas- 
set states that during twenty-four hours seeds will absorb — 

69 per cent, their weight of water at 39.9° Fah. 
91 per cent, their weight of water at 50.8<=^Fah. 
95 per cent, their weight of water at 60° Fah. 
97 per cent, their weight of water at 65° Fah. 

" Experiment has shown that see<^ls require, in a soil sufficiently moist 
and aerated, a total sum of degrees of average temperatures equal to 
650° Fah. for germination. Thus if the average daily temperature be 
50^, thirteen days will be required for germination ; if it be 55°, then 
twelve days will suffice ; and if 05°, only 10 days will be required. If, 
however, the seed be soaked for twenty -four hours in water at 100,° 

t Guide Pratique du Fabricaut de Sucre. 



141 

then the total sum of thermometric degrees, and consequently the 
number of days required for germination, wjll be correspondingly re- 
duced. If they be soaked forty-eight hoars at 100°, then only nine 
days will be required for germination in the ground at an average tem- 
perature of 50^, and a correspondingly less time with a higher temper- 
ature. 

" With regard to the best time for sowing them, Basset* directs as a 
rule : ''Sow as early as possible according to the temperature of your locality, 
whatever may otherwise be the method chosen." Thus, when the tempera- 
ture of the air is from 50° to 54^ Fah. at noon, 46° to 50° in the evening, 
and 32° to 36° in the morning, sowing may be begun without fear of 
unfavorable temperature. This may be combined with observations of 
the temperature of the soil, which should at the same time have an av- 
erage of about 45° at a depth of 4 to 6 inches. 

"Concerning the depth to which the seed should be covered in the 
ground, opinions differ somewhat, but it will naturally follow that much 
must necessarily depend upon the temperature of the season, the phys- 
ical condition of the soil, and the proportion of moisture. The seed re- 
quires the presence of oxygen for germination, and, therefore, if the 
penetration and circulation of atmospheric air be rendered difficult or 
impossible on account of a close, hard character of the soil, this func- 
tion can not be exercised, and the seed will rot in the ground. If the 
soil be permeable and contain sufficient moisture, the depth of covering 
the seed will vary with the temperature. If this be too low, again, the 
seed will rot. But with a favorable temperature and a good physical 
condition of the soil, less attention may be given to the depth of seed- 
ing. However, it is considered a good rule not to bury the seed under 
any circumstances more than I'to 2 inches, and experience has shown 
that at this depth, other things being equal, a higher percentage of the 
seeds will grow than at any other. 

" In all of the beet-growing districts of Europe the system of planting 
in rows has been adopted, but in later years the attention and experi- 
ments of the progressive men have been directed to the determination of 
the influence of the distance between the rows and the beets in the rows 
upon the yield per acre and the saccharine value of the crops. In ear- 
lier years the practice was to separate the roots to such an extent that 
each square yard of surface should be devoted to six roots, but the expe- 
rience of later years has shown that it is better to increase the number 
for thiy surface to ten. The extent of separation must naturally vary 
with the character of the soil and the seed grown. If in rich soils the 
roots be widely separated from each other they have at their disposition 
more of nutritive materials, and there is, of course, a tendency to the 
production of large roots, which, we have seen, will contain more of min- 
eral and organic impurities and less of sugar. On the other hand, if 
grown more closely the stock of nutriment is less, the beets are smaller 

* Guide Pratique du Fabricant de Sucre, p. 387. 



142 



and longer, and consequently richer. Yet, notwithstanding the smaller 
volume of the beet produced, the weight of the total yield per acre la 
very much larger than when the roots are separated to greater distances. 
These facts are amply illustrated in the results of the experiments of 
various workers in the sugar-growing districts of France. 

" The following table shows the averages of the results obtained from 
experiments made by the Societ6 d'Agriculture de Compi^gue in concert 
with the Comit6 des Fabricants de Sucre de I'Oise. This recapitulation 
is made simply according to the separation, and without regard to the 
fertilizers employed. 

[Distance lietwecn the rows, 18 inches.) 



Distance between 
beets in the rows. 


Beets 
per 
acre. 


Average 

weight of 

a boet. 


Density 
of pure 
juice. 


Per hundred of juice. 


Degree 

of 
purity. 


Saline 
coeffic- 
ient. 


Sugar 


Sugar. 


Salts. 


Organic 
matters. 


per 
acre. 




Tons. 
32, 533 
29, 515 
31, 048 


Pounds. 
1.88 
2.23 

2.85 


Degreet. 
C.79 
6. 00 
5.05 


U.55 
12.68 
12.40 


1. 0823 
0. 8195 
0. 8700 


2.0910 
2. 2970 
1. 0U2 


81.93 
80.19 
86.71 


13.58 
15.61 
U.43 


Pounds. 
8,473 


Fourteen inclies 

Eightben inches 


7,480 
6,691 



" Pagnoul's experiments, conducted during a series of eight years, gave 
similar results. He concludes that close j)lanting gives beets which 
are (1) richer ; (2) better quality ; (3) of larger yield in weight ; (4) less 
exhausting to the soil. He took, for his wider separation, 20 inches be- 
tween the rows and 20 inches between the roots in the rows, and for the 
smaller separation 17 inches between the rows and 8 inches in the rows. 

" (1) The richness of sugar in percentages of the weight of root was : 

For the large distances 10. 2 

For the small distances 12.2 

"(2) The proportion of alkaline salts, giving at the same time the 
measure of the foreign organic matters, was for 100 of beet : 

With large distances 1. 512 

With small distances .r. 0.722 

"(3) With large distances there were 16,320 roots per acre, and with 
the small distances 46,122, or nearly triple. The yield in weight per 
acre was : 

Tons. 

With large distances 28.035 

With small distances 36.045 

"(4) The quantity of salts removed per acre would be equal in round 
numbers to : 

Pounds. 

With large distances 840 

With small distances 520 

" M. Pagnoul says in conclusion: 

" Beets at small distances, while producing more of sugar, absorb less of saline 
matters. 



143 

"Nibw we know that the constituent principles of sugar are entirely furnished by 
the atmosphere, and that the saline matters are furnished by the soil and by fertil- 
izers; therefore, beets at small distances from each other (i e., elosely planted) are less ex- 
hausting to the soil. 

" Close culture is more profitable at the same time to the grower and the manufact- 
urer. 

Dubrunfant says :* 

" The multiplication of subjects to avoid large roots, and to facilitate at the same 
time the production of a good constitution of the collalar tissue, is another condition 
to which great importance should be attached in the interest of richness in sugar. 

" Briem sayst ' the separation of the rootS^should be 15 by 10 inches.' 

" In a late discussion in the meeting of the Oercle agricole du Pas-de- 
Calais4 it was developed that though the distance of 17 inches between 
the rows was still in use, it is gradually giving way to the wider sepa- 
ration of 20 inches, on account of the difficulties experienced in horse- 
hoeing and the deficient aeration of the improved races of beets with 
strong foliage, which require more room. 

" At the same time that the wider distance between the rows is 
adopted the roots are left closer to each other in the row about 8 inches ; 
that is to confine them to from seven to nine roots to the square yard of 
surface. 

"The experiments of M. Pagnoul, and results he obtained, together 
with the other facts and figures given, will be sufficient to show the 
importance of this matter of close planting, without quoting the re- 
salts of the same character obtained by Coren winder, Ladureau, Mar- 
iage, Pellet, Deherian, Vilmorin, and others j and we may conclude that 
for the methods of culture that must be employed in the United States 
where hand labor can not be obtained, the wider distance between the 
rows, 20 inches, should be adopted, separating the roots not more than 
8 inches in the rows. 

" The cultural manipulations proper of the crop should begin as 
soon as the beets are up and the leaves sufficiently developed to distin- 
guish the rows ; and we may accept the statement so universally reiter- 
ated by those who speak and those who write on the subject, as sup- 
ported by the success of the practice, that ' early and frequent cultiva- 
tion can not be too strongly recommended ; it kills weeds scarcely 
started and forms a stratum of mellow earth which constitutes an ob- 
stacle to dryness by day and assimilates the moisture of the night.' 

" As before stated, as soon as the rows are defined by the develop- 
ment of leaves the first cultivation by hoeing begins. 

" In France this is, in many sections, performed by hand, while in 
others it is effected by means of the horse cultivator, the object being, 
of course, the destruction of weeds and stirring up the soil. At this 
time, also, many growers make an application of nitrate of soda or 

*La Sucerrie Indigene, xiii, 460. 

tJournal des Fabricants de Sucre, October 23, 1878. 

ilbid., June 4, 1879. 



144 

potash. Two weeks later the beets are thinned out, so as to leave the 
roots about 8 inches apart from center to center, after the manner de- 
scribed above. After this the crop receives about three lioeings or cul- 
tivations, and more than this if time allows, for the work should be dis- 
continued about the 1st of July, according to some authorities, or it 
may be cgntinued as long as the leaves will allow, according to others. 
The latter will probably be for all localities and climates the better in- 
dication. 

"After the final hoeing, about the 1st of July, no other care is neces- 
sary, with the exception of the removal of seed- stalks that may occa- 
sionally appear, especially if July and August be dry, until the harvest- 
ing, which should take place before the appearance of hard frost. If 
the roots be frosted in the ground they are rendered unfit for storing 
and preservation in caves or trenches for extraction of the sugar in the 
late winter, which is, of course, often necessary. 

" Harvesting is generally begun about the middle of September, and 
may, according to the condition of maturity of the crop, continue until 
the middle of October. 

" Pulling the roots is sometimes effected by machines that have been 
devised for the purpose, but the method generally employed is hand- 
pulling, the latter facilitated by the assistance of the pick or plow. 
In many cases a narrow furrow is made near to the row, which loosens 
the earth about the root and renders its extraction from the ground 
easier. The operation must in all cases be exercised with great care, in 
order that the roots be not bruised or cut, accidents which increase the 
tendency of roots to decay when stored. They should also be pulled 
when the ground is in the driest condition. If the ground be wet at 
the time of pulling, the earth will adhere to the root, and this will also 
l^roduce a tendency to decay. Besides this, trouble will arise in the de- 
termination of the tare in the delivery of the croji to the manufacturer. 
In most cases the leaves are removed from the beet in the field, either 
at the time of pulling or at the time of charging them to the carts or 
wagons in which they are to be transported, either directly to the factory 
or to storage. If there be danger from the frost the roots are piled in. 
pyramidal heaps, either before or after the removal of the leaves, in 
such a manner that they may be covered by their leaves or by straw. 
The leaves are removed by a knife or other instrument sufficiently strong 
and heavy that the operation may be effected at a single stroke. It is 
estimated that twenty laborers* (women and children) will be required 
to pull and prepare for transportation from the field the crop of an acre 
of beets in one day. 

" But this estimate is made for French laborers, and we may calculate 

* la the department of Seine-Inf6rieure ten laborei-s are generally employed for 
pulling the crop and preparing for transportation, five to pull the roots, and five to 
remove the leaves and tops. 



145 

tba4; only half tlie number of laborers ^'ill be required in the Cnited 
States to do the same amount of work. 

" The beets to be preserved, if all sii^rface moisture has not already 
evai)Orated from them, should, before being* placed in trenches or cellars, 
be temporarily *ored under sheds. Here the wounded, withered, or 
frosted roots, which would be subject to rot, are separated, if they have 
not already been in the field. The larger roots are also separated for 
the same reason. When thus separated and j)r©pared they are ready to 
be stored. In the preservation the conditions to be avoided are too low 
or too high a temperature, too moist or too dry an atmosphere. With 
too low a temperature they deteriorate by freezing. This is not so in- 
jurious if the roots can be worked before they have an oppiortunity to 
thaw ; otlierwise, much of the cane-sugar changes over to invertetl sugar, 
aod must necessarily pass into the wastes iij the processes of extraction. 
If too warm, similar effects will be i>roduced by growth of leaves, as 
shown by Oorenwinder and others. If teo much moisture be present 
tkn roots have a tendency to rot, ami if too little be present there will 
be a tendency to wither, and this effect is always accompaiaied by a loss 
of sugar, besides increasing the difficulty of extracting the juice from 
tlafe root. 

"The best temperatnre for preserving the roots in the fresh state, which 
is the eondition of preservation nfbst employed in France, is between 
3^ and 40° Fah. The equilibrium of moisture between the air and the 
root shoiild be so nJ^ntained that evaporation may not take place ; at 
the same time, as before stated, excess of moisture must be scrupulously 
avoided. Prudent cultivators consider that the roots should be so ar- 
ranged in storage that they shall never be more than 3 feet from an 
air passage, in order to secure constant and regular renewal of the air to 
earry off noxious gasses, superfluous moisture, and regulate the tem- 
perature which always has a tendency to rise. The cellars or trenches 
must also be thoroughly drained, so that any water that may collect in 
the bottom may flow off. Temporary trenches are often made in the 
fields, but the more advanced growers are preparing permanent ones 
with well-paved bottoms and walled sides. They are generally 8 to 10 
feet wide and 6 to 8 feet deep*. I have seen them with walled sides 9 
by 9 by 85 feet. 

" Along the bottom of the ditch and through the middle of it is made 
a small trench to convey any water that inay percolate through the 
wgjls or through the roots. Before the beets are placed in the trench 
the bottom is covered with poles, or in any other convenient manaer, to 
k^p the roots off the bottom and provide for free circulation of air 
under them and drainage of water. Straw isoften u<sed for this purpose, 
but is considered bad, because it is subject to packing and decay, and the 
latter will, of course, be communicated to the stored roots. They are then 
packed in the trench and co^^red with straw or leaves and finally with 
25474— Bull. 27 10 



146 

earth. The depth of covering must be determined by the climate. In 
the case of permanent walled trenches, which amount in reality to elon- 
gated cellars, I have seen them covered with a very thick thatch of straw 
proper openings being jirovided for the necessary ventilation. In this 
way the roots may be preserved throughout the entire winter. If they 
should by accident be frozen they should be preserved in this condition 
until they are worked. Indeed this condition constitutes one of the 
modes of preserving them where a sufficiently low temperature may be 
maintained to keep them in this way unchanged without an opportunity 
for thawing, and is recommended by some authorities. In sections 
where excessively cold winters i)revail it might be found a very conven- 
ient method for the purpose. 

" Desiccation may be practiced where the method of diffusion or macer- 
ation has been adopted as the means of extracting the juice. It lias 
the advantage of preserving the beet perfectly, with no danger from 
variations of temperature if the product be kept free from moisture or 
a moist atmosphere. They are also in the most favorable condition for 
ready transportation to any distance. 

" For the purpose of drying, the roots are cut in slices, and in warmer 
climates placed in the sun, but in ordinary climates they are dried in 
ovens by artiticial heat. The method has the disadvantage of requiring 
a double expenditure of fuel in evaporation, i. e., for the removal of the 
water of vegetation and the water of diffusion employed for extraction 
of sugar. 

" Wesee therefore that theexperience of French growers and scientists 
proves that to secure the greatest profit from the culture of the \>eet the 
following points must be observed : 

" Choose well-drained permeable soils, not overcharged with nitroge- 
nous organic or soluble mineral matters. Choose the best qualities of 
seed. Give preference to smaller seeds. The best beets for all purposes 
are long, tapering, and smooth ; do not grow out of the ground ; are of 
moderate size and are dense and heavy. Plow deeply and as frequently 
as may be necessary to make the soil mellow. The more it approaches 
that of a garden in physical condition the more favorable it will be for 
culture of the beet. 

" Be careful in choice of manures to be employed. Remember that 
insoluble and not easily assimilable nitrogenous organic compounds, 
before they can be of use to the crop, must be thoroughly disintegrated 
and decomposed. They must therefore be applied sufficiently in advance 
of the crops to secure this effect. Soluble nitrogenous compounds may 
be applied immediately in advance of or simultaneously with planting, 
and of these the nitrates are i^referable. Nitrogenous compounds have 
a tendency to extend the period of growth and delay the time of ripen- 
ing. This tendency is counteracted by the phosphates, in consequence 
of which they increase the production of sugar. 

" Stable manures must in all cases be worked into the soil with the fall 



147 

plowiug. Do not apply more than 10 to 15 tons per acre, and supple- 
ment it with nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime at the rate of 
from 200 to 400 pounds of each per acre, according to the character of 
the soil. 

"Alkaline salts should be applied with great caution, and only to soils 
manifestly wanting them. They add to the cost of culture, and often 
reduce the industrial value of the crop. Plant closely ; 18 to 20 inches 
between the rows will be found the most convenient and favorable for 
culture in the United States. Separate the beets by about 8 inches in 
the row. 

" Cultivate early and often, and continue as long as the leaves will 
j)ermit, but not longer than the middle of July. Do not harvest until 
the crop is thoroughly ripe, but it must not be allowed to be injured by 
frost. 

"Store the roots in such a way that they may be protected from ex- 
tremes of temperature and moisture, and observe care in ventilating 
trenches or cellars ; otherwise the roots will rapidly deteriorate." 



FERTILIZERS. 

In respect to fertilizers. Stammer makes the following observations:* 

" Manuring should first of all give back to the soil what the harvest 
has removed, both as regards mineral substances and nitrogen. Noth- 
ing can be more certain than that a soil to which this restoration is not 
fully made will gradually lose its faculty to produce plants in normal 
quantity and composition. Culture experiments with artificial food 
liquids have not been carried so far with the beet as with some other 
plants and, therefore, the dependence between the composition of such 
liquids and the evolution of the beet has not yet been determined. The 
basis is also wanting whereon the direct working of the manure on the 
beet can be predicted; and here is met the well known difficulty of 
getting the manures into those layers of the soil from which the beet 
chiefly draws its supplies 

" From the present stand-point of our knowledge, therefore, the chief 
object of fertilization is the preservation of the favorable nature of the 
soil for beet culture. 

"After what has been said it will not be matter for surprise that the 
numerous and laborious fertilization and cultivation experiments with 
beets have hitherto produced no generally applicable results 5 such can 
only be expected from the laws which will be established by the artifi- 
cial cultivation of the beet in known nutrient solutions, and it is by no 
means a contradiction of this fact that the beet farmer should be ad- 
vised to undertake fertilization exj)eriments upon his particular soil. 
It is only a matter of ascertaining the particular form and quantity of 



Stammer op. cit., pp. 170 et seq. 



148 

fertilizer which will best give necessary restitution under the local con- 
ditions, and such a form will doubtless in many cases be found, but it 
will be seldom possible to obtain from it a certain and constant influ- 
ence upon the crop. The influence of those factors, over which we have 
no control — climate and weather — is always more powerful than the 
slight alterations which can be made in the character of the soil by the 
restitution of the elements taken from it, or by the preservation of the 
good character of the soil by fertilization. 

" Since experience has taught that beets raised on fields freely 
manured with stable manure are inferior for purposes of manufacture, 
the rule has long been established that not the beets, but the previous 
crop should be fertilized, or that the beets should be raised in rotation 
as the second or even third crop. Unfortunately this rule, so important 
to the factories, has not been so generally observed of late, and as a 
consequence of heavy manuring heavy crops have been produced, but 
at the cost of diminished sugar content or lessened price. This rule 
applies especially to stable manure and night-soil, as well as for Chili 
saltpeter, the misuse of which has had such serious consequence for 
factories, but not for phosphatic manures, which usually exert a favor- 
able influence upon the crop. 

" The constituents which are especially to be taken into account in 
the necessary restitution to the soil for beets are potash, phosphoric 
acid, magnesia, and nitrogen. Following are the quantities of these 
constituents contained in 1,000 pounds of beets and beet leaves, as 
given by averages from numerous analyses : 



Constituents. 



Potash 

Phosphooric acid. 

Magnesia 

Nitrogen 

Total asli 



Roots. 



Leaves. 



Pounds. 


Pounds. 


3.3 


6.5 


0.8 


1.3 


0.5 


3.0 


1.6 


3.0 


7.1 


18.1 



"It will be seen from the relation between the roots and leaves that 
the amounts abstracted by the latter is considerably greater and de- 
serves especial consideration in case the leaves are not left in the field. 
From this point of view the extensive practice of paying for the work 
of digging with the leaves is to be considered an evil and should be con- 
demned. It is certain that a complete restitution can not be made in 
such fields. » » * The form in which the above mentioned plant 
constituents shall be returned to the soil is estaolished for phosphoric 
acid and magnesia, and partly for nitrogen ; superphosphates, with 
greater or less content of phosphoric acid, or with addition of nitrogen, 
ous element, are of universal application. The magnesia is returned in 
the press-cakes, as has been shown by direct investigations, pretty com- 
pletely, though a more uniform distribution is much to be desired, which 



149 

can be improved by thorough subdivision. It is advisable to institute 
investigations from time to time in regard to the phosphoric acid, and 
especially the magnesia in the waste products, and use them according 
to the results obtained. 

" The question of returning the potash abstracted is more diflScult ; 
its computation is complicated by many uncertainties which can not be 
entirely avoided. Still this should not prevent the return of at least 
the difference between the potash in the entire crop and that contained 
in the refuse a-s nearly as it can be ascertained. Potash fertilization 
has largely fallen into disrepute chiefly because large and definite re- 
turns are expected from it, whereas the principal effect is to be expected 
in the preservation of the crop-producing qualities of the soil. These 
will surely suffer a decrease sooner or later in the succession of seasons 
if the restitution is not complete. A change can doubtless be expected 
when it is possible to fertilize the subsoil. Then for the first time will 
it be possible to judge of the direct influence of potash fertilization on 
the beet. A broader question, however, and one that may essentially 
influence the results in the case just mentioned, lies in the form 
of the potash compouads to be used, which is likewise true of the 
other fertilizing materials. There is scarcely a single point on which 
the views of practical men differ more widely, and new compounds are 
continually being recommended as the best. Only one rule seems to be 
of general application, that the potash salt should always be mixed 
with some common salt in order to insure its reaching the lower layers 
of soil; also the advantage of admixtures of magnesia salts if these are 
not given to the soil in some other way. Of the various potash com- 
pounds found in natural deposits none deserve preference over the 
others ; this is due only, it seems to me, to compounds with organic 
substances. To give the reasons for this would require too much space ; 
they will be apparent to the observant student of plant-life. Conse- 
quently the molasses, or its residue after distillation or the liquors of 
the molasses-working processes, all rich in potash, are themselves the 
most valuable materials for i)otash fertilization and should be carefully 
preserved for such use. It must not be supposed, however, that the 
demand of beet cultivation for potash will be satisfied by returning to 
the soil the melasses from the crop of beets in the form of waste prod- 
ucts. Aside from the leaves, for which if taken from the field a largely 
increased potash return must be made, the molasses itself does not rep- 
resent the entire amount of potash taken. Factories which produce raw 
sugar sell with it also potash, and in all factories the waste waters carry 
potash compounds, in small quantities it is true, b«t sufficient to account 
for the difference between the amount of potash in the beets and in the 
molasses. This is not simply a theory, but is based upon exact analy- 
seS^of the factory waters. 

"Although factories which sell refined sugar only, and by the 
purchase of after-products, or of foreign beets, may increase the amount 



150 

of potash in their molasses above that taken from. the soil in their own 
beets, and thus be able to make complete restitution by means of their 
molasses liquors, in most instances the contrary is the case, and to the 
sources of loss mentioned others must be added. 

" That the potash fertilization is not sufficiently accomplished by the 
return of the molasses waste, however, is no reason why they should 
not be utilized as the most natural aud suitable means towards that 
end. * * * 

" To be sure there are great tracts of beet-fields where this is difficult 
or impossible, owing to peculiarities of location. For such, as well as 
for the unavoidable deficit, recourse must be had to potash salts, as 
must also be the case at first with many estates until an easier plan of 
molasses fertilization is discovered. Without going into the question 
as to what potash salt is to be preferred, or why such different results 
have been obtained from them, I would call attention to the fact that 
the certain results obtained from molasses-liquor fertilization indicate 
that the ordinary method of distributing the i)otash salt on the ground 
could well be supplanted by the solution of the salts in liquids which 
are rich in organic substances. It could certainly be expected that the 
application of, for example, sewage water in which potash sails had been 
dissolved, would be more likely to secure nniform distribution of the 
potash in the soil and in a better condition for plant nourishment than 
the application of small crystals of an inorganic potash compound. The 
same end can, of course, be attained in other ways. The salt may, for 
instance, be incorporated either as a fine powder or in concentrated 
solution with other fertilizing materials in a compost heap, etc. Expe- 
rience and a few trials will soon indicate the best method. 

" The advantages of such a mixture of potash fertilizers with stall 
liquor (the distribution of the salt in the stalls themselves is recom- 
mended by many) are given as follows by Frank : 

" (1) The sulphate of magnesia in the potash salt holds the ammonia 
and the phosphoric acid of the manure. 

*' (2) Too rapid fermentation of the manure is avoided. 

" (3) The prevention of the ammonia vapors arising from fermentation 
keeps the air of the stable purer and healthier. 

" (4) The laborious application of the potash fertilizer is saved, and a 
much better distribution secured. 

" (5) The cost of potash fertilization is cheapene<l, since the less ex- 
pensive salt is better adapted for use on account of its content of mag- 
nesia. 

" (6) The expense of the gypsum, which would otherwise be used, is 
avoided. 

" There are also various methods for the use of molasses liquors ; the 
simplest, sprinkling from potash casks, has been chiefly used heretofore, 
although illy adapted for an extensive establishment. The more com- 
plete system of underground pipes with the necessary openings in vari- 



151 

ous places, as practiced, in England, is excluded on account of its cost. 
As a consequence the liquors have long been burned, and the slop 
ashes brought upon the field ; but the fertilizing effect was lacking, 
although the restitution of potash was complete. Another difficulty 
was encountered in the loss of the nitrogen in the molasses, the value 
of this being nearly equal to that of the potash content. » » * 

" The charring of the liquor is therefore inadvisable on two accounts, 
and only one resort is left ; the evaporation of the liquor to such a de- 
gree as will admit of its profitable transportation. True, a very concen- 
trated liquor can not be uniformly distributed on the field and must be 
further diluted on the spot, or mixed in compost with other fertilizers 
and thus brought upon the land. But a uniform distribution of the fer- 
tilizers, especially one saturated with liquids, demands very careful 
work. 

" The absorption of either the thin or the concentrated molasses liquor 
by soil has also been productive of good results. But this method can 
not be universally used. The question of a cheap and uniform method for 
utilizing the molasses residues has become a very serious one in regard 
to molasses working, and can only be considered as settled for certain 
conditions. 

" As for the relation which the quantity of material returned should 
bear to the quantity abstracted, it may be said in general that it is desira- 
ble to return as much nitrogen, one and a quarter to one and a half 
limes as much potash, and two and a half times as much phosphoric 
acid as has been abstracted. 

" I will say further that greater additions of potash and phosphoric 
acid have no disadvantageous effects upon the crop. * * * Direct 
investigations in regard to the relation between the sugar and potash 
in consecutive crops for many years have failed to give the least ground 
for a contrary conclusion. But it must not be expected on the other hand 
that increasing fertilizations, especially potash fertilization, will produce 
proportionately increasing crops, as has been asserted by some." 

INFLUENCE OF NITROGENOUS MANURES ON THE QUALITY OF THE 

BEET. 

The opinion has generally prevailed among beet-growers during late 
years that heavy nitrogenous manuring, especially with nitrate of soda, 
exercised no injurious effect on the quality of the beet. This opinion 
was based on the fact that in such beets the sugar per cent was only 
slightly diminished. Nevertheless the quality of a beet may be impaired 
even with little or no diminution of the sugar content by reason of the 
increase of the percentage of non sugars present. 

Herzfeld* has shown that heavy manuring with nitrogenous sub- 
stances greatly injures the quality of the beet for sugar growing pur- 

* Zeitschrift Rubenzucker Industrie, February, 1888, p. 131. 



152 

poses. In beets grown at Warmsdorf in 1887 the truQ co-efficient of 
the beet was found on unfertilized plots to be 69.2, while on the plots 
which had received large quantities of nitrogen it was only 65.1. In 
other words the unfertilized beets require that 31.8 parts of non-sugars 
must be removed in order to isolate 69.2 parts of sugar; while the pro- 
portions for the fertilized beets are 34.9 parts of non-sugar for only 65.1 
parts sugar. 

In beets from Atzendorf the injurious effects of Chili saltpeter were 
noticed in all cases ; 30 per cent more of the nitrogen present in the 
beets being in the form of melassigenes than was the case with the un- 
manured beets. 

The apparent eo-efficient of purity of the juicje is also frequently mis- 
leading since it takes no account of the nature of the non-sugars pres- 
ent. In beets grown at Bernberg the influence of strong Chili nitre 
on the maturing of the plant was noticed. Judged by the apparent co- 
efficient of purity of the juice alone, the beets which had recetved large 
quantities of phosphoric acid were the poorest, while those manured 
with Chili nitre were next, and the unmanured were the best. But no 
conclusion could be further from the truth than to suppose the beets 
grown with phosphoric acid were poorer than those which received the 
nitre. The latter contained three times as much nitrogen in the forin 
of melassigenes as the former. The nitrogen, therefore, should be sep- 
arated into albuminoid, betain, and ammoniacal groups. The term 
betain includes all organie bases which are precipitated with phospho- 
tungstic acid. The real purity of the beet is also to be distinguished 
from the apparent purity of the juice. The real purity of the beet is 
obtained by dividing the percentage of sugar in the beet by the total 
solid matter therein ; the apparent purity c^ the juice by dividing the 
percentage of sugar therein by the apparent percentage of solids as 
indicated by the Brix spindle. Judicious fertilizing with nitrate of 
soda, however, is beneficial, as will be seen by the statement oi' Dt. 
Peterman further on. 

EXPEEIMENTS WITH BASIC PHOSPHATE SLAG AS A FEETILIZER FOR 

THE SUGAK BEET.* 

" Kuster concludes in the following expression that ' the basic phos- 
phate slag is not adapted for application to heavy soils, and that the 
easily soluble phosphates are to be preferred in such instances.' Al- 
though some doubt may attach to a generalization based upon a 
limited number of experimental observations, the above conclusion 
may have a value in comparison with our experiments, notwithstanding 
that the methods adopted were not the same and the respective fertil- 
izers contained differing quantities of phosphoric acid. 

• By Em. v. Proskowete, jr. Zeitschrift Rlibeiizuckor Intlustrie, Hbbruary, 1883, p. 
127. Abstract. 



153 

" The experiments to be given were carried out at Kwassite upon a 
heavy, humous, lowland soil, which had been previously planted with 
clover and wheat, and receiving a liberal dressing of farm-yard manure 
before taking the latter crop. The phosphate slag applied contained a 
total of 20.5 per cent phosphoric acid, of which only 0.04 per cent, was 
soluble in 'citrate solution.' 

" The superphosphate used in comparative experiments contained in 
total phosphoric acid 17.3 per cent, of which 12.44 per cent was soluble 
in water. 

I. Three plats received 6 kilograms slag iu tbe fall. 

II. Three plats received 8 kilograms slag in the fall. 

III. Three plats received 8 kilograms slag in the spring. 

IV. Three plats received 4. 2 kilogirams snperphospate in the spriDg. 

" Yield in ^eets (roots without leaves) of the several plats. 

Kilograms. 

tPumanured -■.-, .- jr^. .. 633 

I. For 35 kilograms phosphoric aq|[d, yielded — 714 

II. For 47 kilograms phosphor! c acid, yielded 859 

III. FoF 47 kilograms phosphoric aeid, yielded 934 

IV. For 20.7 kilograms phosphofic aeid, yielded 1, 600 

" Pefcentage of sugar contained in heets grown upon the several plats. 



Unmanured. 


I. 


II. 


HI. 


IV. 


Per cent. 
U.3 


Per cegf^. 
lis 


Per cent. 
14.1 


Per cent. 
14.3 


Per cent. 
14.4 



''In this special instance it appears to be demonstrated that phos- 
phate slag is less operative upon the heavy soils of this locality than 
the usual applications of superphosphates. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS trPON SUGAR BEETS.* 



" Th'B experimetits were conducted during the year 1889, a«d the 
results may be summarized as follows : 

" (1) In two experiments it was shown that exclusive fertilizing 
with N-manures was efifective and economically practicable. 

" (2) In most experiments this year the ai)plication of P2O5 caused 
an increased yield. Most observable was the excess of value obtained 
from the us© of the P2O5 in the form of superphosphate over the P20g 
contained in basic phosphate slag. It has been concluded that 2|^ kilo- 
grams of P2O5 iu form of ph^asphate slag are necessary to substitute 1 
kilogram of P2O5 of the water soluble phosphate. The operatioa of the 
P20g of the slag phosphate is more moderate and constant than the 
P2O5 of the superphosphate, which latter has an earlier and more pow- 
erful effect on the young plant. 

* By Em. v. Proskowetz, jr. 



154 

" (3) The percentage of optically active non-crystallizable matters 
has been extremely high this year, and was the highest where N-fertil- 
izers were used and the lowest where the superiDhosphates were 
applied. 

" (4) The experiments indicate that the basic phosphate slag should be 
used with reticence and discretion. Further, that the use of nitrogen 
mixed with superphosphates is in given localities the most safe and 
economical fertilizer." 

The following observations in respect of fertilizing are taken from the 
report of Commercial Agent Howes : * 

" MANURING. 



"The sugar-beet, of all the cultivated plants, needs the greatest 
amount of nourishment in the soil. It is, therefore, very necessary to 
use such a manure as will supply it with the best nourishment and in 
such a condition that it can be taken up by the beet. Possibly some 
soils are rich enough to do without manuring, but this seldom occurs. 
There are cases were beets have been raised in the same fields for ten 
successive years without fertilizer, and yet good crops have been ob- 
tained. 

"The ability of the sugar-beet to disclose and take up nourishment 
is not very high, and, therefore, if a large crop is desired, much ma- 
nure must be used. Manure must be used that will increase the per- 
centage of sugar as well as the quantity of the crop. 

" According to E. Wolff, in 1,000 kilograms of sugar-beets are — 



Constituents. 



Leaves. 



"Water 

Nitrogen 

Ashns 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Lime 

Mat;nesia _. . 

Phosplioiic acid 
Sulpliuric acid.. 

Silicic acid 

Chlorine 




"Jf we calculate per hectare (2.5 acres) 30,000 kilograms of beets 
(07,500 pounds) and 7,000 kilograms (15,750 pounds) of leaves, there is 
removed from the ground by beets — 



Description. 


Nitrogen. 


Potassium. 


Phosphates. 


Roots . 


Kilograms. 

48 
21 


Kilograms. 
114 

28 


Kilograms. 
27 


Leaves 




5 


Total 


69 


U2 


32 



* Sugar-beet iudustry of Bohemia. 



155 

"STABLE MANURE. 

" The direct application of stable manure to the beet is not good, be- 
cause the beet will then not ripen at the right time, and the quality 
will be poor. Stable manure should not be put in the soil in the spring. 
It should be plowed under in the fall. The manure of sheep is worth- 
less, as it contains too much nitrogen and potassium, and the amount 
of salts in the beets is so increased that they are hardly fit for the fac- 
tory. Manure of cattle can be used if mixed with that of horses. This 
manure contains sufficient nourishment, but the amount of nitrogen in 
proportion to phosphoric acid is too high. This should be 1 to 2, but 
in this manure it is just the contrary. The amount of manure usually 
needed per hectare (2.5 acres) is between 20,000 and 40,000 kilograms. 
According to a table by Wolff there is produced in the ground by apply- 
ing 30,000 kilograms of manure, 150 kilograms nitrogen, 78 kilograms 
phosphates, and 189 kilograms potassiuil]. From this nourishment the 
result of applying freshly decomposed manure is, in the first year, 35 
to 50 per cent ; in the second year, 40 to 35 per cent ; in the third year, 
25 to 15 per cent. An average crop of sugar beets (30,000 kilograms) 
needs 69 kilograms nitrogen, 32 kilograms phosphates, and 142 kilo- 
grams potassium. Compost is a very good manure, but it is not good 
to use any sugar-beet soil in its preparation, as it may contain neraatids. 

" FERTILIZERS. 

" In applying fertilizer not only the crop but the quality of the beets 
will be better if it be used alone or employed to modify stable manure. 
Generally nitrogen, salts, and phosphates are used ; exceptionally, po- 
tassium. According to P. Wagner the following amount of phosphoric 
acid and nitrogen should be used. 



Description. 


Minimum 
per liectare. 


Mean 
per hectare. 


Maximum 
per hectare. 




Kilograms. 
40 
20 


Kilograms. 
60 
30 


Kilograms. 
80 




60 







"If nitrogen, as Chili nitrate, is used, then there will be needed 150 
kilograms minimum, 250 kilograms mean, and 400 kilograms maximum. 

"time for manuring. 



" Manuring should always be done as early as possible in the fall. 
The longer the manure has been in the ground before the vegetation of 
the beet the greater will be the amount of nourishment and its distri- 
bution. Experiments show that manuring in spring is wrong, and 
there are many reasons why. For instance, if the season is dry the 
manure can not decompose, the ground remains loose, and consequently 



156 



the young plant buffers for water. On the other hand, as soon as a 
heavy rain comes after a drought the leaves grow very fast, but the 
plant does not ripen well, and a large cxop is raised, but of a poor qual- 
ity. If the manure is not decomposed the work in the field can not be 
done in good shape, and insects have a good refuge. On heavy, loamy 
soils fresh manure is good for loosening it and allowing the air to enter. 

" Hotc deep to put the manure. — It is best first to put the manure in the 
ground as shallowly as possible, because it decomposes better until the 
deep plowing is done. The more nitrogen the beet fintls in the first 
period of ite vegetation the better. The less nitrogen found in the 
ground in the first period the more will be taken up in the last period, 
and that means a loss for saccharification. 

" The following table shows, by the experiments of Liebscher, that 
the crop may be Increased without losing in quality, if the manure be 
properly applied and the beets planted closely : 



Manure per hectare. 



None 

20,000 kilograms 
30,000 kilogramu 
40,000 kilograms 



Sap. 



Sugar. 



Per cent. 
10. 4 
16.3 
16.4 
16.2 



Quotient 
in purity. 



Per cent. 
89.1 
87.4 
88,J8 
89.1 



Crop per 
hectare. 



Eilot. 
31, 065 

34, 785 

35, 435 
42, 100 



" The more nitrogen there is in the soil the less fertilizer will be re- 
quired, but the more phosphate. 

" The increase of the crop by fertilizing with nitrogen is, according to 
experiments by Wagner : 100 kilograms Chili saltpeter with 15J to 16 
kilograms of nitrogen increase the crop about 4,500 kilograms of beets 
and 900 kilograms of leaves. Fertilizing with nitrogen should take 
place only when enough phosphate, lime, and potassium is in the soil, 
because large and good crops can only be expected when these sub- 
stances are present. Whether enough phosphate is pres.ent can only be 
learned by experiment. Fertilizing with nitrogen should only be done 
in the spring. Chili nitrate should always be preferred, and the follow- 
ing rules should be observed : 

" (1) A good variety must be planted. 

" (2) Seeds should be olrtained from the best sources. 

" (3) In addition to Chili nitrate, phosphate must be added, or the crop 
will mature too late. 

" (4) Fertilizing with Chili nitrate should be done before sowing, not 
after. 

" (5) Beets must bo thickly planted, and cultivated four or five 
times. 

" According to the calculations of Stutzer, the use of more than 400 
kilograms to the hectare of Chili nitrate does not pay. 



157 

" Professor Mjerker has experimented upon the influence of phosphates 
with the following results : 

" Phosphates do not always produce an effect. If the soil is super- 
saturated with it, it can cause loss. This has often been observed by 
practical farmers. The cause is that P2O5 quickens maturity or causes 
an early death of the leaves, and that may lessen the crop, especially 
in a dry, rainless season. 

♦^ Ten experiments have given the following results : 



Fertilizer. 



Witrkout phosphate (P^Oj) 

400 kilogl-ama precipitate 

Superphosphate (P2O5 — 76 to 80 kilograms) 

400 kilogratiiB Thomas slag 

1,000 kilograms Thomas slag ; 



Crop per 
hectare. 



Kilograms. 
32, 063 
31^,456 
35, 346 
33, 589 
34, 756 



Increaao. 



Eilograras. 



2,30e 
3^283 
1, 526 
2,693 



" There is not much difference in the effect of the various phosphate 
fertilizers' so far as sugar in the beet is concerned. If it be necessary 
to use phosphate fertilizers in spring, superphosphate is always to be 
preferred. 

" SPEEADINa THE FERTILIZER. 



" Spreading broadcast has been found to be better than drilling, 
is done by the machine shown in Plate 1. 



This 




Fig. 36. 



" There are, however, drills which have an attachment fer drilling 
fertilizer, as is shown in Plate 2. 




Pig. 37. 



" It is very important to put the fertilizer in the right depth. Prac 
tical experiments have shown that it should not be used after sowing. 
In using Chili nitrate, a shallow harrowing is sufficient, because the 



158 

next rain will carry it deeper. Potassium and phosphate, which are 
absorbed immediately, must be put deeper. This can be done with a 
sharp harrow, or, better still, by shallow plowing. It is said that a 
depth of 20 to 22 centimeters is the best. 

" The following table shows the results of different depths in sandy 
loam soil per hectare : 





Depth. 






Year. 


10 to 12 cen- 
timeters. 


20 to 22 cen- 
timeters. 


Differeuce. 


1881 


Kilograms. 
32, 674 
36, 217 
65, 726 


Kilograms. 

38, 543 

39, 030 
69, 596 


Kilograms. 
5,869 
2,813 
3,870 


Per cent. 
17.96 


]88.i 


7.77 


1883 


5.89 



"MIXED FERTILIZER (PHOSPHATE AND NITROGEN). 

" Of these are used : Peruvian guano (7 per cent nitrogen to 10 per 
cent P2 O5) ammonia superphosi)hate ; blood manure with superphos- 
phate. Bone-dust is seldom used, as its effect is too slow ; if used, it 
must be ai^plied in the fall. 

"Although most soils have potassium enough, it may occur that lands 
where beets are raised every year may need it. The direct application 
of potassium salts to the beets is not good, because all these salts con- 
tain a chloride which injures the plants. The best is to give potassium 
mixed with stable manure two years before the beets are planted. 
When thus mixed, the ammonia is kept from becoming volatile. 

" Lime. — Quicklime is a good fertilizer, especially on very heavy 
soils, which it loosens. For 1 hectare 24 to 40 kilograms should be 
used. 

" For sandy soils marl is excellent, the best containing 30 to 50 per 
cent of lime. The amount of marl needed for 1 hectare, if containing 30 
per cent of lime, is 220 kilograms ; if containing 50 per cent, only 130 
kilograms." 

In general it may be said of fertilizers that they must be judiciously 
applied if a maximum benefit is to be secured. Especially is this true 
of nitrogenous fertilizers, which, when applied to soils already rich in 
nitrogen, or in excessive quantities or at inopportune seasons, may, by 
delaying the maturation of the crop and decreasing the relative per- 
centage of sugar, prove injurious. Nitrogenous manures should be ap- 
plied to the soil and thoroughly incorporated therewith before seeding, 
and should in general be supplemented with i^hosphate and potash fer. 
tilizers. The quantity of nitrogen may vary from 15 to 30 pounds per 
acre. A fertilizer containing about 14 per cent, of nitrogen should 
therefore be used in quantities of from 125 to 250 pounds per acre. 



159 



STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUGAR-BEET * 

lu a most valuable brochure of 87 pages, with six figures and ten 
heliograph plates,t Girard has traced the development of the beet from 
the beginning of its growth to complete maturity. In its various stages 
the proportional weight of roots, stems, and leaves has been established 
and the development of sugar traced. In Plate 1 complete plant at 
maturity is shown. 

This weight of the entire plant was found to be 1,527 grams. 

This weight was divided as follows : 

Leaves : 

Stems grams.. 161 

Leaf do.... 316 

Body (coutaiuiug 12.19 per cent sugar) do 965 

Top, root, and radicles do 25 

^ 1,527 

Extreme length of root meters.. 2.5 

Surface : 

Foliage sq. centimeters.. 3,520 

Body..., do.... 417 

Radicles do 2,920 

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 

Girard, as a result of his studies, calls attention to the origin of the 
sugar which the body of the beet has stored up and the fact that its de- 
velopment has been followed step by step. 

To comprehend well the storage of sugar it is necessary to get an 
exact statement of the absolute and relative growth of the three prin- 
cipal parts of the beet, viz, body, foliage, and radicles. These propor- 
tions at various periods of growth are shown by the following table : 



Body. Foliage. 



Radicles. 



June 8 

June 19. 

July 2 

July 15 

July 29 

AntJHst 10 ... 
Angust 24... 
September 5. 
September 18 
October I 



Fer cent. 
G. 8 
15.1 
24.8 
29.5 
38.9 
45.7 
52.0 
57.3 
59.8 
63.3 



Ter cent. 
83.1 
80.1 
72.8 
68.5 
59.3 
52.8 
46.2 
41.2 
38.7 
35.2 



Per cent. 
10.1 
4.8 
■ 2.4 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 
1.8 
1.5 
1.5 
1.5 



The preceding numbers permit the general character of the plant to 
be recognized at once during the various periods of its growth. Dur- 
ing the first two months the organs pertaining to the foliage are pre- 
dominant and the activity of the plant is principally directed towards 

* By Prof. Aime Girard. Abstact. 

t Published by Gauthier-Villars, 55 Quai des Grands- Angustin, Paris. 



160 

the production of these parts. The importance of the body during this 
time is of libtle moment. In respect of the rootlets, their relative im- 
portance is pronounced at the beginning of growth, but rapidly dimin- 
ishess and soon less than 2 per cent of the weight of the plant represents 
the radicles. During the last two months o^ the season vegetation goes 
on under entirely different conditions. 

The foliage and rootlets increase, it is true, but in such feeble propor- 
tions as to often seem stationary. The body on the contrary increases 
rapidly in weight, and at the end of the season it represents about two- 
thirds of the entire weight of the plant. For each of the parts of the 
plant in normal conditions of soil humidity this increase is regularly 
proportioned to the time of growth, and would be represented gr^hi- 
cally by almost straight lines, and this is true of body, rootlets, and ateo 
for the foliage, provided the normal weight of the withered leaves is 
taken into account. 

Unequal in point of view of intensity for each of the parts, feeble for 
the foliage and roots, considerable on the other hand for the body, this 
increase preserves its regularity in respect of the components of all the 
parts, viz : Cellulose, mineral matters, organic soluble matters, that is 
to say, matters in course of elaboration. In such a manner is this growth 
carried on that by leaving out of account intermediate products, it may 
be said that all the parts of the plant maintain a sensibly constant com^ 
position during the most important period of growth, viz, from the 
month of July on. There are, however, some exceptions to this rule, 
and although they are not numerous, they are of great importance both 
from a vegetative point of view and from industrial considerations. 
Thus the analysis of the roots and rootlets shows them increasing sap- 
idly in vassular tissue and acquiring, by reason of the increase in cel- 
lulose, a daily increasing solidity. In like manner the study of the 
foliage, and notably of the leaf, discloses the presence of sucrose, varying 
in a relatively important manner under the influence of the light, while 
on the other hand the products comprising the other vegetative tisaifes 
vary in a maoner much more restrained. 

Also, finally, the study of the body at different epochs of vegetation 
shows an increasing saccharine richnesis, intimately connected with 
meteorological conditions, and notably with the measure of rain which 
the plant has received. In a word, it is shown that the body in€a'ea8es 
regularly in weight, whatever be those conditions, but being charged 
either with water or sugar according to circumstances, and preserving 
in all cases the sugar which previous vegetative activity has stored up. 

From the considerations which precede, it seems possible to define the 
conditions under which the sugar-beet is developed, the conditions 
under which the important quantity of sugar is formed which the body 
has stored away. 

From the first months of Its vegetation the sugar-beet asserts its com- 
ing character, for even when its weight does not exceed 1.5 grams 



161 

it contains already 1.5 per cent sugar. Its chief activity at that time, 
however, is to perfect its foliage and rootlets. Bat soon, from about 
the' middle of July, its vegetation takes on a different character. Each 
day, under the direct influence of the sunlight, the leaves form a new 
quantity of sugar. Each day along the petioles a quantity of sugar, 
which may be roughly estimated at 1 gram, passes to the body. In 
the same time there is taken from the soil in aqueous solution a quan- 
tity of mineral matter which may be estimated at .15 to .20 gram, and 
this matter is directed through the body toward the leaves. 

The essential part of the plant, that body which at the end of the 
season represents two-thirds of the whole weight of the plant, ought 
therefore, no longer to be considered only as a vegetable plexus which, 
during the tirst year of the life of the beet, increases regularl^^ with the 
time, and of which the cellulo-vascular tissue of a composition, sensibly 
constant during the entire period of vegetation, is filled regularly with 
water and sugar, the one replacing the other according to meteorolog- 
ical circumstances, and forming in all cases a sum which represents 
about 94 per cent of the weight of the beet. 

CONTRIBUTION TO THE CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 

SUGAR-BEET.* 

"(1) The application of thechemical fertilizer composed of nitrate of 
soda, chloride of potash, and superphosphate of lime in quantities 
which replace the fertilizing principles removed by the last crop is ca- 
pable of retarding the germination of the seed, in some cases, for as 
much as three days, according to the degree of humidity in the soil. 
Two causes contribute to produce this phenomenon ; on the one hand 
the free phosphoric acid and alkaline salts act as antiseptics on the fer- 
ments which cause the germination, and on the other hand the chem- 
ical fertilizer being very hydroscopic, takes from the seed a portion of 
the moisture necessary to soften the outside of the seed. 

''(2) The morphological development of the sugar-beet is modified 
under the influence of its environments, that is to say, under influence 
of different nutriments. 

"(3) Maturation of the sugar-beet, which is indicated by the disap- 
pearan<;e of the chloroplyll in the leaves, is retarded b^' the application 
of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda. 

" (4) In spite of the production in the same soil of eleven successive 
crops of sugar-beets the nematoid has never been discovered. 

" (5) The quantity of water which traverses a cubic meter of the earth 
depends on the one part upon the rain-fall, and upon the other on the 
vigor of vegetation, being directly as the first cause, and inversely the 
second. 

* By A. Petermann. Balletiu of the Associatioa of Freucli Sugar Chemists, De- 
cember, 18'^9, p. 253. Abstract. 
25474— Bull. 27 11 



162 

" (G) Drainage water is more rich in nitrogen where nitrate of soda has 
been used than where other mineral salts have been employed. 

"(7) In a clayey, sandy soil, the regular restitution of the mineral 
matter alone and of the nitrogen alone, and of the mineral matter asso- 
ciated with the nitrogen, removed by the preceding crop has increased 
for the ten years of experiment, the production of organic substances 
respectively from 27 to 50 and 93 per cent, compared with the produc- 
tion obtained without restitution of the nutritive elements. The natu- 
ral sources of nitrogen are insufficient to show the maximum utilization 
of the mineral matters restored alone; and, moreover, the decomposi- 
tion of the soil does not render assimilable sufficient quantity of the 
mineral matters to permit the sugar-beets to produce, with the aid of 
restored nitrogen alone, the maximum of organic matter. 

" (8) The gieat oscillations observed in the weight of organic matter 
produced from year to year, can be caused only by those factors of the 
experiment which are changeable, namely, meteorological conditions. 

"(9) In the experiments made, the production of organic substances 
the minimum of heat necessary to normal development being furnished, 
is shown to depend rather upon the height of the rainfall than with 
the degree of heat. 

" (10) All the conditions being equal and the minimum of the heat 
necessary to the normal vegetation being furnished, the quantity of 
sugar contained in the beet at the moment of harvest is in direct pro- 
I)ortion to the intensity of light which has prevailed during the whole 
duration of vegetation. 

" (II) In our assays, the centesimal composition of the ash has varied 
essentially with the environment and has been modified from year to 
year. 

" (12) The quantity of certain mineral elements, phosphoric acid, lime, 
and magnesia found for a given year are almost in the same propor- 
tions in the beets where they are not fertilized as in the others. It is 
therefore shown that this vegetable absorbs for a given weight of or- 
ganic substance produced these mineral elements in a certain propor- 
tion more or less fixed according to whatever be, the proj)ortion of the 
quantity placed at its disposal. 

" (13) The absorption of mineral matters has taken place in the case 
of lime and magnesia, in the state of phosphate and carbonate, and in 
the case of potash and soda in a state of chloride, sulphate, and nitrate. 

" (14) The quantity of water contained in the beet is a characteristic 
of the variety; certain variations are noticed from climatic conditions, 
etc., but in general, the character of the food furnished the plant is 
without influence upon its richness in water. 

" (15) Albuminoids and fats vary greatly in the beets and the ex- 
tract matters also, while the content ot sugar and of cellulose is more 
constant. 

" (10) Of the total nitrogenous bodies contained in the beet at ma- 



163 

turity, 58 per cent belong to pure albnraens, and 42 per cent to the 
albuminoids sucb as the amides and albuminoid glucosides. 

" (17) The application of nitrate of soda has exerted a slight de- 
pression on the formation of sugar.' The diminution of the percent- 
age of sugar due to the nitrogen is more than compensated by the ener- 
getic action of this fertilizing fjrinciple on the production of total 
organic substance, and it may be detinitely stated that in spite of the 
decrease in percentage, the total weight of sugar is increased- The total 
sum of the carbohydrates has been almost the same in all the ten ex- 
periments irrespective of the food furnished the plant and has varied 
chiefly by reason of the intensity of the light. 

" (18) The cellulose also has shown little variation." 



TYPICAL FORMS OF SUGAR-BEETS. 

The shape of the sugar-beet has much to do with its value as a sugar- 
producing plant. A smooth and symmetrical exterior permits the beet 
to be easily harvested and washed. An irregularly shaped beet may 
easily carry into the cutters sand and earth, and even stones of consid- 
erable size, quickly dulling and even breaking the knives of the slicing 
machine. In selecting mothers, therefore, only beets of smooth and 
symmetrical exteriors are chosen. 

There is thus a tendency to establish a typical form, which varies with 
the variety of beet. These typical forms for the most api)roved varieties 
of beets have been carefully studied and photographed by Professors Eck- 
enbrecher and Maercker, and a few of the most important of these types 
are reproduced here. In ad<lition to the beets of normal types, there 
are noticed a few instances of reversion to older and less desirable forms. 



164 




165 




166 




167 




168 




i> 



(H., 
>'-»/ 









/ 







^v 






V 



/i-*' 



^ 



'^ 



\ 



k 



Ix.r^'^ 



\- 



\^^ 



Hmp ihowing SSone 100 miln 
wide on each lide of tho moan 
iaothcrm of 70° F. for the three 
Summer Moothii of June, July 
and August, for a |>eriod of ten 
yean from 1879 U> 18W. 



■k' 



,. J^' 



169 



METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS. 

In addition to suitable soil fertilizing and cultivation the sugar beet 
requires certain meteorological conditions for the highest production 
of sugar. Temperature and rain-fall exercise the most pronounced in- 
fluence, not only on the jield of beets but also on their saccharine quali- 
ties. 

A. mean summer temperature of 70° Fah. for uinety days is sufficient 
to push the beet well on to maturity, while a much higher degree than 
this tends to diminish its snccharine strength. 

The experience of beet-growers in California indicates that in certain 
latitudes the beet can flourish with a much less rain-tall than has hith- 
erto been deemed a minimum for its proi)er growth ; but this is not con- 
clusive evidence that in all localities so small a supply of jnoisture 
would be sufficient. In regions of dry and hot winds or where the sub- 
soil was less porous, or aerial evaporation much more vigorous, less 
favorable results would be obtained. Dr. McMurtrie traced his area of 
beet-sugar limits with an isotherm of 70° Fah. for the summer months, 
and a minimum rain fall of 2 inches i)er month for the same period. 
By the kindness of the Signal Office I have obtained a record of mean 
temperatures and i)recipitation for each month in the year for a period 
often years of those i)ortions of the country in which the culture of the 
sugar-beet is most likely to succeed. Also from the same source a tracing 
of the mean isotherm of 70° Fah. for ten years for the three months of 
June, July, and August. Extending for 100 miles on either side of this 
line, the map shows a belt extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, 
within whose limits the most favorable conditions for growing beets, as 
far as temperature alone is concerned, will be found. 

The mistake must not be made of supposing that all the region in- 
cluded within the boundaries of this zone is suitable for beet culture. 
Rivers, hills, and mountains occupy a large portion of it, and much of the 
rest would be excluded for varioiis reasons. In the western portion, 
l)erhaps all but a small portion of it would be excluded by mountains and 
drouth. Beginning at a point midway between the one hundredth and 
one hundred and first meridian, as indicated by the dotted line, beets 
could be grown only in exceptional places without irrigation. On the 
Pacific coast, only that portion of the zone lying near the ocean will 
be found suitable for beet culture. 

On the other hand, there are many localities lying outside the indi- 
cated belt, both north and south, where doubtless the sugar bi'ctwill be 
found to thrive. The map, therefore, must be taken to indicate only in 
a general way those localities at or near which we should expect success 
to attend the growth of sugar beets in the most favorable conditions 
other than temperature alone. 

In respect of the rain-fall it is necessary to call attention to the fact 
that a wet September and October are more likely to injure a crop of 



170 

sugar beets than a moderately dry July or August. A wet autumn 
succeeding a dry summer is almost certain to materially iujure the sac- 
charine qualities of the beet before it can be properly harvested. In 
this regard it will be seen from the tables of precipitation that the two 
Dakotas are more favorably situated than Oregon and Washington. 

The raiu-fall in Oregon and Washington for September and October 
is 2.17, 8.25, and 2.24, and 4 inches, respectively, while in the two Da- 
kolas it is only 1.11, 1.27, and 1.54 and 1.20 inches. The importance of 
this slight raiu-fall in securing asjife harvest without danger of second 
growth is easily recognized. 

During the winter months the temperature that is best for beets is 
one of uniforiiiity and sufficiently low to prevent sprouting or heating 
in the silo. Sudden and extreme variations are alike injurious — on the 
one hand causing danger from freezing and on the other from sprout- 
ing. On the coast of California the winters are so mild that the beets 
require very little protection, in fact more from the heat than the cold, 
while in Nebraska and the Dakotas tlie temperature often falls so low 
as to endanger the beets even in w<3ll-walled silos. 

All these problems in meteorology deserve the most careful considera- 
tion from those proposing to engage in the sugar-beet industry, and it is 
hoped that the subjoined tables and map may help to elucidate them. 



Table sliowinq the average precipitation , for each month of the t/ear, at the stations specified. 
{Deduced from observations during the period January, l>iS(>, to December, ISHU.) 



State iiud station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Mai no: 

(Jiiniish 

lOiistport 


In. 

4.24 
4.64 
5. 02 

4. .52 
4.22 


In. 

4.47 
4.49 
,5.20 
4.64 
4.72 


In. 
3.24 
4.68 
4.27 
4.06 
3.23 


In. 

2. 65 
3.14 

3. 31 
2.76 
2.90 


In. 
3.36 
4.82 
3. 53 
3.60 
3.42 


In. 
2.94 
3.72 
3.09 
3.29 
3.04 


In. 
4.51 
4.49 
3.47 
3. 70 
3.96 


In. 
3.19 

2.82 
2.48 
3. 33 
3.23 


In. 

3.76 
3.10 
3.62 
3.38 
3.51 


In. 

3.88 
4.89 
3.80 
3.70 
4.02 


In. 
4.43 
4. 22 
3.86 
4.44 
4.21 


In. 
3.93 

5. 26 
4.64 


Otoiio 


4.45 
4.44 








4.53 


4.70 


3.90 

*3. 72 
2.79 

+1.84 
2.89 


3.15 


3.75 


3.22 


4.03 


3.01 


.3.49 


3.87 


4.23 


4.54 


New Hampshire ; 


*4. 61 
li. 83 

f2.84 
3.84 


*4. 27 
3. 55 

12. 55 
3.73 


2.80 

2.14 

11.30 

2.32 


3.95 
2.88 
12.70 
3.14 


3.37 
3.03 
:2. 90 
3.18 


4.53 
3.67 
13.38 
4.01 


3.43 
2.98 
12. 87 
3.17 


4.32 
3.74 
12.49 
3.94 


4.00 

3.16 

12.48 

3.40 


4.30 

3.12 

t3.27 

3.68 


4.11 


Concord 


3.41 
12.47 


Weir's Bridge 


3.90 




3.7d 


.3.52 


2.81 


2. U 


3.17 


3.12 


3.90 


3.11 


3.62 


3.26 


3.59 


3.47 


Vermont: 

Burlington 

Lnnpn1)urj; 

StritTord 


1.68 
2.99 
3.64 


1.48 
2.49 
3.16 

*2. 77 


1,78 
2.33 
3.14 

"2. 68 


1.67 

1.15 

1.90 

§1. 66 


2.86 

3.14 

3.06 

§3. 16 


2.98 
3.35 
2.95 

§2. 24 


2.82 

3.60 

4. .52 

*3.98 


3.08 
3.25 
3.61 
*3.00 


3.64 
3.41 
3.70 
113.41 


3.12 

3.76 

3.02 

*2.68 


2.88 
3.10 
3.92 
*2. 09 


1.85 
2.82 
3.28 




*3.00 


*3.27 










2.83 


2.48 


2.48 


1.60 


3.06 


2.88 

3.45 

2.81 

2.79 
§2.81 

3.07 
13.80 

2.98 
13.63 


3.73 


3.24 

4.08 
3.58 
3.85 

§4.87 
4.08 
14.09 
13. 72 
*3. 33 


3.54 


3.14 


3.00 


2.80 


M;i8saeliu.setts: 
Anilier.st 


4.23 
4.81 
4.61 
*5. 44 
4.78 
t4.44 
t3.34 
+4.56 


3.72 
3.99 
3.56 
M. 28 
4.76 
14. 36 
1J.2C 
14.42 


3.62 
3.64 
2.66 

*3.91 
3.99 

13.23 
3.10 

t3.49 


2.53 
2.73 
2.56 
"2.75 
3.45 
12. 65 
12.60 
:2.67 


3.58 
3.86 
3.14 

^3.30 
3.61 

t3.48 
3.02 

14.13 


4.69 
3.51 
4.05 
§4.18 
4.00 
14.97 
14.61 
:3.38 


4.50 
3.30 
3.74 

§3.59 
3.45 

13.52 
3.05 

13.84 


.3.40 
3.62 
3.24 

§3.77 
3.56 

13.62 
2.62 

t3. 85 


3.77 
3.38 
3.31 

§4. 69 
3.97 

13.72 
3.24 

t3.96 


3.67 
3.27 




3.31 




§3.58 




3.93 




13.84 


Willianistown 


13.40 
t4.06 








4.53 


4.04 


3.46 


2.74 


3.52 


3.17 


4.17 


3.95 


3.62 


3.46 


3.76 


3.68 



• For seven days. t For nine days. J For eight days. § For six years. || For five years. 



171 



Table skoteiiig Ike average precipitation, etc. — Continued. 



State and station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Deo. 


Rhode Island : 
Nai'iajiansett Pier 


In. 
*5.84 
t6. 19 


In. 
*4.95 
16.30 


In. 

*4.28 
14.33 


In. 

13.27 
13.22 


In. 

12. 88 
13.67 


In. 
:2.C9 
12. 99 


In. 
13.89 
:4. 07 


In. 
:3.99 
14.06 


In. In. 

+3.40 !:4.46 
13.29 14.10 


In. 

:4. 32 
14.11 


In. 

:3.78 
14.59 












6.02 

5.10 
.3.52 
4.44 
5. 25 


5.62 

4.39 
4.95 
4.56 
5.41 


4.30 

3.49 

4.27 
4.30 
4.46 


3.24 

2.53 
2.70 
2.64 
3.36 

2.41 

2.24 
1.99 
2.16 


3.28 

3.37 
3.17 
3.84 
3.94 


2.84 


3.98 


4.02 


3.34 


4.28 

3.97 
4.25 
3.97 

4.72 


4.22 

3.88 
4.02 
3.48 
4.40 


4.18 


Connecticut : 

Hartford ^ 

M iddlet own 

New Haven 

New London 


2.61 
3.30 
3.14 
3.47 


5.02 
5.02 
5.37 
4.04 


4.01 
3. .59 
4.67 
4.55 


3.49 

4.17 
4.04 
3.77 


4.19 
4.38 
3.97 
3.77 




4.58 

2.95 
.S. 18 
2.61 


4.83 

2. 56 
2.96 
2.35 


4.13 

2.72 
2.49 
2.35 


3.58 

3.13 
3.02 
3.61 


3.13 


4.86 


4.20 


3.87 


4.23 


3.94 


4.08 


Nortliern New York : 

Albany 

Oswego 


3.58 
3.61 
3.37 


3.68 
2.60 
2.30 


3.67 
2.41 
3.10 


3.28 
2.6S 
2.10 


3.18 
2.92 
2.63 


3.46 
3.47 
2.53 


2.94 
3.66 
2.44 










2.91 


2.61 


2.52 


2.13 


3.25 


3.52 


2.86 

2.73 

4.04 


3.06 

3.29 
3.54 


2.68 

3.71 
3.37 


2.91 

4.06 
2.89 


3.15 

4.46 
2.34 


3.01 


Northwestern Pennsyl- 
vania : 
Erie . 


3.38 
8.90 


3.79 
3.38 


2.58 


2.76 


3.46 


4.29 
6.12 


3.47 




2. .52 2.41 3.50 


3.25 




0..0 J 






3.64 


3.58 


2.55 


2.58 


3.48 


5.20 


3.38 


3.42 

2.53 
3.37 
2.44 
2.65 


3.49 

3.38 
2. .59 
2.54 
2.12 


2.48 


3.70 


3.36 


Northern Ohio: 


2.44 
2.14 
2.14 
2.40 


3.37 
3.18 
2. .55 
3.17 


2.34 
2.38 
1.95 
2.47 


2.20 
2.34 
1.98 
2.43 


2.52 
3.64 
3.78 
4.58 


4.03 
4.29 
3.67 
3.90 


3.47 
3.08 
3.29 
3.51 


2.56 
2.51 
2.92 
.3.14 


3.07 
2.72 
2.74 
3.26 


2.54 


Sandnsky 

T<)le<h) 


2.54 
2.30 




2.55 








2.28 
2.14 


3.07 
4.24 


2.28 
2.59 


2.24 


3.68 


3.97 


3.a4 

3.71 

3.81 
3.07 


2.75 


2.66 


2.78 
'3.03 


2.95 
3.55 


2.48 


Northern Indiana : 


3.04 


5.29 


5.15 


2.76 

3.24 
3.24 


3.08 

3.38 
3.57 
4.16 
3.50 


3.44 






Michigan : 
Adrian . . ^ 


2.25 
3.08 
2.04 
2.78 
2.46 
1 96 


63.48 
2.61 


S^2.47 
2. -27 


J. 60 
2.23 


4.44 
3.81 


4.90 
4.21 
3.84 
4.04 
4.96 
4.43 
3.24 
3.60 


3.79 
3.71 


3.44 
3.16 


2.70 
2.90 


Kscauaba 


1.68 1.59 
3. 21 2. 38 
2. 96 ! 1. 87 


2. 06 3. 17 
2.45 1 3.21 
2. 24 ; 4. 36 
2.24 ! 3.92 
2. 68 1 2. 71 
2.00 3.43 


2. 74 3. 64 

3. 57 3. 2:i 


3. 51 2. 26 
3. 75 2. 75 


2.44 
3.14 


KaUiniazoo 


2.93 : 2. .52 3.06 
3.17 1 2.90 ! 3.14 


2.84 
3.21 
3.06 
2.76 


2.39 
2.66 
2.72 
2.63 


2.93 
1.80 




3.28 §1.88 
2.34 i 2.97 


1.74 
2 40 


2.74 1 3.27 
2.62 2.4t 


4.27 
2.16 


2.96 




2.26 








2.52 


2.68 


2.16 


2. 31 3. 63 


4.15 


3.08 


3.06 


3.40 


3.33 


2.75 


2.64 


Northern Illinois : 


2.22 
2. 28 

112.12 


3.03 
2.66 

112.40 


2.19 
2.37 

112.10 


3. 08 3. 83 
2. 61 3. 25 


3.53 
3.64 

§4. 78 


3.86 

3.18 
§4. 68 


3.42 
3.44 

§3.47 


2.88 
3.16 

§3.23 


3.65 
3.14 

64.21 


2.82 
2.00 
§2.56 


2.42 


Kilcy 


2.05 




II 3. 70 


§4. 06 


§2.59 










2.21 


2.70 


2.22 


3.13 


3.71 


3.98 


3.91 


3.44 


3.09 


3.67 


2.46 


2.35 


Iowa: 
Creaco 


1.47 
1. ."55 
1.31 
1.83 

111.86 


1.11 

1.91 
1.29 
1,84 
1.26 


1.64 

2.14 
1.40 
2.23 
1.42 


2.27 
2. 38 
2.94 
2.73 
3.05 


3.73 
4.42 
5.30 
4.12 


§4. 53 
4.47 
5.88 
4.74 


§5.19 
3.85 
4.02 
4.66 
5.22 


§3. 52 
3.04 
3.74 
3.39 
3.93 


§4. 26 
3.41 
3.95 
4.47 


2.29 
3.75 
3.66 
3.22 


L28 
1.88 
1.77 
1.75 
§1.44 


1.50 
1.92 




1.54 




2.11 


Logan 


4. 49 5. 82 


3. 00 ! 2. 94 


111.32 










1.60 


1.48 


L77 


2.67 


4.41 


5.09 


4.59 


3.64 


3.82 


3.17 


1.62 


,.68 


Wisconsin : 


2.96 
1.31 
2 08 


2.65 
0.99 
2.30 
2.36 


2.27 
1.45 
2.54 
2.16 


2.92 
2.10 
2.92 
2.18 


4.45 
2.80 
3.56 

2.78 


5.71 
3.57 
4.64 
3.95 


5.15 

5.00 
5.36 
3.80 


5.58 
3.85 
3.76 
2.68 


5.05 
4.71 
3.71 
2.71 


4.17 
2.15 

3.28 
2.24 


2.94 
1.32 
1.76 
1.6» 


3.14 




1.32 




2.55 




1.96 


2.22 










2.08 


2.08 


2. 10 1 2. 53 


3.40 1 4.47 


4.83 


3. 97 1 4. 04 


2.98 


1.90 


2.31 










1 










1 









* For seven days. t For nine days. t For eight days. § For nine years. || For eight years. 



172 

Tahle showing the average precipitation, etc. — Continued. 



State and station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar 


Apr. 


May. 


Juno. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Minnesota: 
Duhitlj 


In. 

1.26 

*0 82 

1.21 


In. 
.34 


In. 
1 . .^."i 


In. 

2.44 
"2.18 
2.69 


In. 

3.50 
*2.75 
2.58 


In. 

4.52 
■3.84 
3.55 


Tn. 

3.32 

*4.37 

3.53 


In 

4. 14 
*2.70 
2.99 


In. 
3.90 

*2.40 
3.24 


In. 
3.14 

*2 25 
1.64 


l7l. 

1.76 

*0. 93 

1.22 


In. 
1 33 




*0. 86 '^0.76 
1.00 1.21 


*0 83 


St. Paul 


1. 33 












1.10 


1.07 


1.11 


2.41 


2.98 


3.97 


3.74 


3.28 


3. 18 


2.31 


1.30 


1.16 


North Dakota: 


0.52 
0. G(j 
0.48 
■0.48 


0.61 
0.43 
0. .'59 


0.67- 
0.42 
0. 38 


1.86 

1.11 

I 21 

*1. 26 


2.11 
1.51 
2.U 
*2.0U 


2.98 

3.07 

3.84 

*3.01 


2.68 
1.96 
2. 62 

*2. 70 


1.98 
1 55 
2. 66 

*2. 28 


0.88 
0.84 
0.80 
1.93 


1.04 
0.80 
1.49 
1.76 


0.52 
0. 35 
1.02 
0.56 


0.75 


Fort Butbrd 


0..56 


Fort Totteu 


75 


St. Vincent, Minn 


*U. 50 j*0. 53 


0.71 




0.54 


0.53 


0.50 


1.37 


1.93 


3.22 

3.66 
*3.50 

3.16 
3.14 


2.49 


2. 12 


1.11 


1.27 


0.61 


0.69 


Sonth Dakota: 
Deadwooil, Rapid City. 
Fort Sisseton, Wads- 
worth. 
FortSnUy .* 


1.25 
0.39 

0.51 
0.60 


1.34 
*0.37 

0.43 
0.77 


1.78 
*0.87 

0.53 
1.05 


3.98 
*1.78 

1.84 
3.35 


4.19 
*2.33 

2.10 
4.83 


2.70 
*3.16 

2.67 
3.16 


2.31 
*3. 38 

2.23 
3.30 


0.86 
*1.30 

0.82 
3.17 


1.06 

*1.81 

0.52 
1.66 


1.24 
to. 56 

0.36 
0. S4 


1.12 
*0 52 

0.49 

0. »7 










0.68 


0.73 


1. 06 


2.74 


3.36 


3.36 


2 92 


2.80 


1.54 


1.26 


0.75 


0.75 


Nebraska : 


1.00 
0.93 
0.34 
0.82 


0.86 
0.67 
38 
0.91 


1.55 
1.03 
0.70 
1.3 


2.29 
2 85 
2. 03 
2.91 


3.64 
3.96 
3.30 
4.64 


4.71 
4.21 
3. ,^8 
5.76 


3.86 
4.57 
2.76 
5.26 


3. 55 

2 86 


2.56 
3. 20 


2.45 
1 G8 
1.37 
2.97 


0.89 
0.66 
0. 37 
0. 92 


1.10 




0.86 




2.72 


1.57 


0. .55 




3.5.5 


3.06 


0. 9i 








0.77 


0.70 


1.15 


2.52 


3.88 


4.50 


4.11 

Trace 
*0. 32 
0. Ill 
0.04 
0.01 
0.00 
0.01 


3.17 


2.62 


2. 12 


0.71 


0.S6 


California: 

Kenicia Hrrraiks ... 

Fort Bidwell 

Fort Gaston 

Los Anjjele.s 

lied Hliifl 


2.87 
3.51 
9.9!) 
2.39 
3.05 


*2. 06 
2.46 
6.45 
3. 38 
2.04 


*2. 75 
2. 03 
4.30 
3.35 

9. SO 


2.62 
*2.31 
5.69 
1.92 
2. .54 
3.01 
1.19 


0.70 
tl.ll 
2. to 
0.41 
1.00 
0.77 
0.50 


0.30 
tl.l3 
0.96 
0. 16 
0.6.5 
0.25 
0.09 


Trace 
*0.09 

*n. ii4 

0.06 
(). 00 
0.00 
0.05 


0.25 

"•(). 27 
*il.88 
0.07 
0.63 
0.03 
0.02 


11.33 
*l.66 
*3. 55 
1.07 
1.83 
1.2!) 
0.63 


*2. 10 
1.91) 
4.76 
1.67 
3. 33 
2. .52 
0.71) 


4.60 
*.i. 47 
10. 68 
4.29 
5.44 


Sacramento 

San Diego 


3. If) 
1.91 


2. 28 3. 17 
2. 38 2. 05 


4.96 
2.40 




3.82 


:. 01 


2.92 


2.75 


i.Ol 


0.51 


0.07 


0.03 


0.31 


1.62 


2.43 


5.12 


Oreiron : 

Albany 

Kola.: 

Fort Klamath 

I'orthind 


7.92 
7.16 
3. 62 

7.28 
6.06 


5.70 
4.73 
2.44 
4.97 
3.92 


3.67 
3.27 
*1.42 
3.72 
2.30 


3.51 
2.73 
1..52 
3.66 

2.87 


2.27 
1.84 
1.35 
2.48 
1.55 


1.71 
1.39 
:i. 49 

1.7! 
1.48 


60 

,5.48 
5 70 
61 
0.51 


0.40 
5,22 
1. 14 
0. 56 

0.15 


1.78 
1.84 
4.73 


3.76 
3.40 

tl.68 
4.31 


3. 9>! 

3. .59 
*1.99 
5.01 
3.18 


8.76 

7. 06 

*4. 19 

9. .56 




■^0. 58 3. Ul 


6.78 








6.41 


4.35 


2.8.>^ 


2.86 


1.90 


1.56 


2.58 


1.49 

0.80 
K7 
.56 
0.71 


2 17 


3.25 


3.55 


7.27 


Washinjrton : 

r.lakeley 

Fort Ciinhy 

()lyinj>i;i 

Port Townseud 


6.25 
8.08 
8.68 
2.71 


4.32 
7.15 
5.78 
1.46 


4.02 
5.94 
4. 14 
1.33 


2.81 
4.63 
3.83 
1.73 

3.23 

1 


2.05 
3.06 
2. .50 
1.43 


1.48 
2.37 
1.70 
1.28 


0.83 
1.26 
0.71 
0.98 


2.15 
3. 35 
2.54 
0. 90 


3.73 
6.26 
4.31 
1.93 


4.22 
6.96 
4.97 
2.17 


7.86 
9.84 
9.09 
3.08 




6.43 


4.68 


3.86 


2.26 


1.71 


0.94 


0.74 


2.24 


4.06 


4. 58 


7.47 



* For nine years. 



t For eight years. 



I For seven years. 



173 

Table showiufi the mean temperature bi degrees F. for each month of the year at the sta- 
tions specified. {I)iditc(d from observations during the period, January, 18»0, to Decem- 
ber, Ibsy, inclusice. 



State aud station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. A pi. 


May. 'June. 


Jnly. 


Anjt. 


Sept. Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Maine : 


o 
18.1 
20.4 
17.9 
1.V4 
23. 


° 
20.4 
21.9 
20.0 
18.8 
25. 1 


o 
27.6 
2H.1 
20.7 
27.0 
32.0 


o 
41.4 
38.4 
41.0 
40.0 
44.8 


o 
55.3 


o 
6.5.3 


o 
68.6 
60.5 
67. 2 
67.0 
68.4 




66.5 
60.4 
65.0 
05. 

72.7 


o 
.58.5 
53.8 
58. 3 
57.3 
59.9 


o 
45.7 
40.3 
40.5 
45. I 
48.8 


o 
34.7 
37.4 
36. 8 
33.2 
39. 4 


o 
24.4 


Eastporl 

Gaidiner 


47.3 
53.5 
52.0 


.55.8 
*02. 
02.5 


26. 5 
•/5.6 
,;3. 


Portland 


54.3 i 03.9 


29.2 




19.0 

21.. 5 
■*i7.5 

19.5 

18.7 

!.■>. I 
12.8 


21.4 


28.3 


41.1 


52.5 


61.9 


66.3 


65.9 


58. 1 46. 5 

60.3 49.0 
58. 2 45. 6 


36.7 

38.7 
33.8 


25.9 


Ntiw IIani|)sliiie: 


24.5 
18.8 


30.8 
26.6 


4.5. 3 
40.0 


.57.2 
56.5 


65.3 
64.1 


69.4 
69 3 


07.1 
03.0 


28.2 




22.4 








21.0 


28.7 


43.0 

42.8 
38.8 
41.3 
40.4 


50.8 

.58.0 
.53. 4 
57. 1 
55 7 


64.7 


09.4 


00.4 


59.2 


47.3 


30. 2 

37.1 
33. 2 
34.8 
32.0 


25.3 


Vi-rniont: 

Hmlington 

IjUiieubms; 

Stiattoid ■ 

Woodstock 


20.6 
Ifi. « 
17.fi 
18.1 


27.5 
24.0 
25.1 
25.3 


66.6 
63.3 
63.9 
64 7 


71.0 
07.3 
09. 5 
68.8 


69.2 
03. 1 
07 5 
05. 3 


01.6 
57.9 
59. 3 
58.2 


47.6 
44.2 
46.3 
45.1 


25.6 
21.5 
22.4 
21 3 




l.'i.S 


18.3 


2.5.5 


40. 8 56. 7 


64. 6 ' 69 2 


66.8 


59.2 


45.8 


34.4 

39.5 

41.8 
37.1 
!!38.4 
4'.\ 6 
40.0 
37.1 
38.7 


2-'. 7 


Masnaclmsetts: 

Amherst 

P)(»st on 

Fitchburs; 

T.awi't'nci- 

New Bed Cord 


23.3 

26.7 
21.9 
<22 7 
"■27. .5 
24.0 
20 2 
23.4 


2.1.0 
28.1 
23. 6 
122. 7 
i8.4 
25. 9 
22.6 
23. 9 


32.1 
33. 3 
29. 

:3i 

33.1 
32.5 
28.2 
30.0 


46.2 
44 6 
42.8 

;4-..2 

43.9 
40.8 
42.7 
'42.8 


57.9 

.55.7 
56. 4 

:58. 8 
,54.1 
00.5 
.56.8 

15.5.2 


66.6 
6.5.9 
6.5.8 
;67. 2 
64.1 
08.8 


70.7 
70.3 
69. 7 

:72. 

(-.9. 2 

72.8 


68.0 
08.5 

00.8 
:(i7. 2 
67.3 
68.9 
04.6 
66.8 


61.4 

02.2 
60.2 

;,59. 8 
60.1 
63.3 
38.7 

*60.7 


49.0 

.511. 8 
47.3 

*48. 
,51. 
.50.4 
47.0 

'48.0 


29.6 
32. 2 

27.0 
§27. 6 

31.8 
•30.0 


Williamstowu 


04.6 68.2 
*6.5. 1 *70. 


26.6 
28.6 








23.7 
:25.3 


23. 


31.2 
:32.2 


44 4 


57.0 


66.0 I 70.4 


67.3 
:09 8 


60.8 
:62.1 


48.9 
:.51.2 


39.4 
:41.9 


29. 2 


Kliodo Island: 
Providence 


t28. 5 


r45.4 


t.-.6. 5 


{67. 6 ,§73. 1. 


+31.1 


Connecticut: 

Hartford 

Middletown 

New Haven 


5>22.4 
124.3 
20. .5 
28 9 


§24 
1123 9 
2''. 1 
30.0 


§30.3 

§31.4 

33. 5 

35.0 


§(6.7 
1146.4 
45.7 
46.0 


§.59. 4 
11.58. 7 
57.3 
56.6 


§67.2 §72.2 
1165.9 1170.5 
66.3 71.lt 
65. 6 70. 5 


§08. 2 
1167.2 
69.0 
69.1 


1160. 7 
§53. 3 
03.3 
63.7 


:48. 
I14H.4 
51.7 
53.0 


r39. 8 
§40.4 
41.6 
43. 4 


:29. 2 

§31.0 

32. 

34.0 












25.5 

23.4 
23. 3 
23.1 

23.3 


20.5 


32. 6 


40.2 


58.0 


66.2 j 71.0 


6^.4 


00.8 


50. 4 


41.3 


31.6 


Noi tliern New York : 

All)any 

O-swe^o 


25. 6 
24. 3 
24.0 

24.6 


32.1 

28.8 
28.8 


47.1 
41.5 

42.7 


60.7 
.54. 5 
5fi.0 


09.0 
02.0 
•62.5 


73.1 

08.4 

*69. 5 


70.7 
07. 1 
"67. 4 


03.8 
01.3 
-62.2 


51.1 
49.0 

48.7 


40.7 
39.1 

38.2 


30.0 
29.4 
29.1 












29.9 

31.3 
29.1 

30.2 


43.8 


.57.3 


04.7 


70.3 


68.4 


62.4 


49.6 


39.3 


29.5 


Nortli western Pennsylva- 
nia: 
Eiie 


26.1 
21.8 


27.2 
23.9 


43.8 
43.7 

43.8 


57 2 
56.0 


6.5.8 
60.2 


70.0 
63. 5 


68.7 
02.5 


03.2 
56.8 


51.8 
4.5.3 


40.9 
34.2 


32.5 




26.2 








24.0 


25.5 


56.6 


63.0 


68.0 


05.0 


60.0 

03.8 
04.9 
04 1 
02.9 


48.6 

52.1 
52. 5 
.52. 1 
49.8 


37.6 

40.1 
40.5 
40.3 
36.9 


29.4 


Northern Ohio : 

(Cleveland 

Sandusky 

Tolwlo 


25.3 

2,5.8 
2.'>. 2 


27.8 
28.4 
27.9 
24 9 


32. 5 

33. 
34 2 
31.8 


45.1 
45. 4 
46 8 
46.0 


58.8 
\59. 5 
59.8 
58 5 


00.7 
*07. 
68 5 
07.2 


1 

i 

71. 1 09. 

-72. 9 70. 7 

73. 2 1 70. 2 

71.9 1 08.9 


31.4 
31.8 
31.3 




2i.4 


27.7 








24.4 


27. 2 


33.0 
136.7 


43.6 


59.2 


07.4 


72. 3 69. 7 


63.9 


51.6 
too. 3 


39.4 


30.0 


Northern Indiana: 


*24.0 


t29.9 


*52.9 


*64.7 


•71.2 


*70.2 1*73.9 


167.2 


*40. 


*30.7 







* For nine years. t For eight years. J For seven years. § For six years. || For five years. 



174 

Table showing the mean temperature in degrees F. for each month, etc. — Contiaued. 



State and station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 

o 
45.2 
36.4 
32.6 
43.4 
46.2 
4.5.8 
36. H 
41.5 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Deo. 


Michigan: 

Adrian 

Alpena 

Escanaba 

(irauil Haven 

Kalamazoo 




20.3 
16.9 
13.6 
23.3 
20.6 
21.1 
14.5 
19.2 




*25.9 
16.7 
20.2 
24.2 
23.7 
23.4 

*15.5 
21.7 




*31.0 
22.9 
21.2 
30.0 
30.3 
30.5 
21.8 
28.1 




f.8. 4 
49.0 
4.5.1 
54.7 
57.6 
58.6 
49.1 
53.1 


t 
67.2 
59. 
54.4 
63.2 
67.1 
68.3 
57.6 
63.3 




71.6 
64.7 
59.5 
68.2 
72.3 
72.7 
64.2 
68.3 


o 
68.4 
63.0 
.')7. 1 
66.3 
69.1 
69.8 
62.3 
67.0 




61.7 
56.7 
51.2 
50.2 
62.4 
62.7 
56.1 
60.6 




49.1 
44.7 
40.4 
49.2 
50.4 
44.8 
44.5 
48.8 


° 
36.6 
33.2 
28.2 
38.0 
36.5 
32.9 
31.9 
35.7 




28.2 
25.0 
20.1 
30.0 
28.1 
22.8 
23.8 
26.9 










18.7 


21.7 


27.0 


41.0 


52.4 


62.5 

65.4 
65.7 
*G6. 8 


67.7 

71.4 
70.3 
'71.2 


65.4 

70.6 
67.9 
*68.6 


58.8 

64.2 
60.2 
'59.9 


40.5 

52.5 
47.9 

*48. 7 


34.2 


2.5.6 


Northern Illinois : 


22.4 

11.6 

fl5.3 


26.3 
19.5 

t21. 


34.1 
29.1 
J30.4 


46.0 
46 6 
:46.0 


56.4 
56.1 
'54. 5 


39.2 
33.3 
*35.5 


30 2 


Kiley 


23 1 


Sycamore . . . /. 


*26. 2 




17.4 

7.4 
19.4 
16.6 
16.1 
16.5 


22.3 

13.6 

24.9 
23.1 
21.7 
22. 4 


31.2 


45.9 


55.7 


66.0 


71.0 

*70.4 
74.8 
74.5 
73.6 
75.9 


69.0 


61.4 


49.7 


36.0 


26.5 


Iowa: 


26.7 
35.0 
34.7 
32.7 
35.2 


44.4 
50. 1 
50.2 
48.6 
51.7 


56.2 
61.2 
60.9 
60.1 
63.2 


*66.2 
69.7 
69.8 
68. 5 
71.6 


*68.1 
72.2 
72.1 
70'9 
74.0 


*58.6 
64.4 
63.5 
63.6 
65.9 


45.8 
52.2 
51.7 
50.4 
52.4 

50.5 


29.0 
38.2 
36.6 
3.'"). 7 
36.1 

35.1 


18 3 




28 3 




26 5 




25 6 




26 1 








15.2 


21.1 


32.9 


49.0 

44.2 

47.3 
42.4 


60.3 

59.1 
59.8 
53.3 


69.2 

66.0 
68.5 
61.7 


74.6 

71.0 
72.7 
68.4 


71.5 


63.2 


25.0 


Wisconsin : 

Embarrass 

La Crosse 

Milwaukee 


11.2 
13.4 
17.9 


15.5 
19.1 
■il.9 


26.4 
30.5 
30.3 


68.2 
69.8 
67.4 


60.9 
61.4 
60.7 


48.5 
49. 5 
49.7 


32.4 
3*. 3 
36.0 

34.2 


21.2 

23.8 
26.4 




14.2 


18.8 


29.1 


44.6 


57.4 


66.1 


70.7 


68.5 


61.0 


49.2 


23.8 


Minnesota : 

Diiluth 


7.9 
2.9 
9.1 


12.4 
2.9 
14.9 


23.2 
20.0 
27.9 


37.5 
40.2 
45.3 


48.1 
53.6 

57.8 


57.3 
64.5 
66.9 


65.2 
67.6 
71.3 


63.6 
65.1 
68.6 


55 2 
5.5.3 
60.0 


44.4 
39.0 
47.2 


29.5 
24.9 
31.0 


17 8 




11 1 


St. Paul 


19 4 








4.7 

3.2 
2.6 

*7.5 
"4.5 


10.1 


23.7 

23.0 

24.0 

*1.5. 3 

17.1 


41.0 


53.2 


62.9 


68.0 


65.8 


56.8 


43.5 

43.7 
42.6 
40.0 
41.3 

41.9 


28.5 

20.6 
25.8 
21.2 
22.5 


16.1 


North Dakota: 

Hismarck 

Vort Buford 


9.2 
9.3 

*0.6 
3.8 


41.4 
41.7 
*36. 6 
37.7 


54.9 
53.9 
*51. 7 
53.8 


65.0 
64.2 
*62. 3 
64.0 


69.1 

68.0 

*65. 

67.3 


67.0 
66.1 
*62. 5 
65.7 


56.3 
54. K 
52.6 
55.0 


13.8 
10 8 


St. Vincent, Minn 

FortTotten 


6.2 
8.2 








1.6 


5.7 


19.8 


39.4 


53.8 


63.9 


67.4 

*69.0 
73.9 
66.0 
73.5 


65.3 

*65. 1 
72.1 
65.4 
71.3 


54.7 


24.0 

*25.4 
30.7 
32.4 
33.0 


9.8 


Soutli Dakota: 

Fort Sissetou 

Fort Sully 

Dead wood 


0.4 
8.8 
19.4 
12.6 


6.0 
15. 5 
22.9 
18.2 


21.0 
29.6 
31.3 
30.6 


*40. 9 
47.5 
41.3 
47.0 


*55. 2 
58.9 
50.4 
59.3 


*65.0 
68.9 
61.1 
69.2 


*56.8 
61.9 
55.2 
61.8 


*43. 
48.2 
44.5 
49.6 


*11.2 
19.1 
26.0 
22.4 








10.3 


15.6 


28.1 


44.2 


£6.0 

61.5 
60.4 
58.1 
62.2 


66.0 

70.5 
70.0 
68.3 
71.4 


70.6 

74.9 
74.6 
73.2 
76.2 


68.5 

72.6 
72.3 
71.1 

74.4 


58.9 

63.5 
62.8 
62.0 
64.8 


46.3 

51.1 
49.8 
49.6 
52.0 


30.4 


19.7 


Nebraska : 

De Soto 


14.5 


91 a 


34.0 
32.3 
35.1 
35.1 


50.7 
48.6 
48.5 
51.1 


34.4 
33.0 
34.5 
37.0 


24.4 




13. 5 ' 20. 4 
18. 6 j 26. 1 
16. 6 1 23. 4 


23.4 


North Flatte. 


27.0 




26.7 








1.^.8 1 22.6 


34.1 


49.7 

56.9 
47.9 
153.8 
59.0 
59.8 
58.2 
58.8 


60.6 


70.0 


74.7 


72.6 


63.3 

*66.6 
62.6 

63.7 
68.7 
*74.7 
69.6 
67.2 


50.6 

61.7 
51.2 
54.5 
63.1 
62.7 
61.0 
62.6 


34.7 

54.2 

40.4 
46 
58.7 
*52. 7 
52.4 
53.3 


25.1 


Califoinia: 

Bcnecia Barracks 

Fort Bidwell 


46.6 '•49.6 
31. 4 33. 8 
41.0 1 43.7 
53.6 1 54.4 
4.5. 5 1 19. 1 


*54.2 
4!. 4 
49.8 
.56. 2 
55. 2 
54.7 
56.1 


61.4 

*55. 9 
59.8 
62.2 
67.5 
63.4 
61.5 


65.6 
*63. 5 
65.0 
65.9 
75.2 
68.2 
64.4 


65.8 
71.0 
71.8 
09.4 
82. 1 
71.9 
67.2 


68.4 
70.7 
69.3 
70.6 
80. 5 
71.8 
69.1 


50.3 
35.8 
41.2 


Los AnfTCles 

EedHluflf 


55.5 
47.5 


Sacramento 


45.5 
53 5 


49.4 
54.7 


47.5 
56.3 










45.3 


47.8 


52. S 


56.3 


61.7 


66.8 


71.3 


71.5 


67.6 


59.5 


51.1 


48.2 



' For nine years, 



tFor cigiat years. 



[ For seven years. 



176 



Table showing the mean temperature in degrees F. for each month, etc. — Continued. 



State and station. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 



65.4 
64.4 
t62. 1 
65.3 
65.0 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Oregon : 


o 
38.6 
37.fi 
1 '26. 4 
37.0 
40.4 


o 
40.9 
39.8 
t26.8 
40.0 
41.6 


o 
47.5 
46.8 
:34. 7 
47.6 
47.5 




51.8 
50.1 
140.0 
51.8 
51.6 


o 
57.9 

55.8 
t49.7 
58.0 
57.1 


g 
61.0 
60.3 
:56.9 
62.1 
61.4 


o 
66.3 
60.7 
t61.6 
66.4 
66.5 


o 
62.1 
59.1 
151.7 
00.6 
61.4 


o 

*49.0 
51.6 

§41.5 
53.0 
52.2 


o 
43.2 
43.7 
t33.2 
44.8 
44 5 


o 
41.8 


Eola 


41.5 


Fort Klamath 

Portland 


t30.4 
41.6 




43.2 








36.0 


37.8 


44.8 


49.1 


55.7 


60.3 


64.3 


64.4 


59.0 


49.5 


41.9 


39.7 


"Washington : 

Blakeley 

Fort Canby 


38.5 
41.0 
37.6 

*38.7 


40.3 
41.7 
39.0 
*39.3 


46.1 

46.0 
44.5 
t46.2 


50.8 
49.0 
48.7 
51.3 


56.0 
53.2 
54.5 
55.0 


61.2 
56.5 
59.2 
60.0 


63.3 

59.0 
62.3 
62.0 


62.7 
59.5 
61.9 
61.2 


57.6 

57.8 

56.2 

t56.4 


51.0 
53.0 
50.1 
*53.4 


45.1 
47.1 
43.8 
*44.0 


41.8 
44.1 
40.6 


Port Town send 


*40.9 




39.0 


40.1 


45.7 


50.0 


54.7 


59.2 


61.6 


61.3 


57.0 


51.9 


45.0 


41.8 



"For nine years. 



tFor eight years. 



t For sIk years. 



( For seven years. 



Dr. McMurtrie, iu special report No. 28, has made a careful study of 
the climatic couditious iu the United States favorable to the production 
of the sugar beet. Maps are given showing the southern limit of a 
mean teraj^erature of 70° Fah. for the three summer months, coupled with 
a minimum mean rain-fall of two inches j)er month for the same period. 
The tables of temperature and rain-fall, from which these lines were 
computed, are also given in detail. The observations made on the data 
collated are as follows: 

" We see from this that the sections of the United States most favor- 
able to beet-root culture are confined to the north, including New Eng- 
land, New York, a narrow band south of the lakes, Michigan, parts of 
Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Dakota. Here the line of the southern 
limit passes into the British possessions and enters the United States 
again in Washington Territory, and, crossing Western Oregon, passes 
to the coast to the extreme north of California. In most of this band 
we find a favorable temperature, and the average rain-fall is sutiicieut in 
quantity, but we are unable to make auy observations concerning the 
number of rainy days. In California, as the tables will show, the tem- 
perature is sufliciently moderate, but, from examination of the figures 
for the stations for which the rain-fall has been recorded, we find it to 
be remarkably deficient. Here, in order to make the culture a success, 
it would appear that the intervention of irrigation during the summer 
months would be an absolute necessity. 

" We also note a few counties in the southwestern portion of Pennsyl- 
vania, and one county iu Ohio, without the general band, where suita- 
ble meteorological conditions seem to exist. These counties are sur- 
rounded by the red line in the more "detailed maj) that has been pre- 
pared, showing the county lines near to or over which the line of the 
limit of favorable meteorological conditions passes. This map is in- 
tended for more ready reference for those who may contemplate estab- 
lishing the oulture in the sections in the near neighborhood of the line. 



176 

" Now, I do not mean to assert that the band of country I have thus 
plotted on the map is exclusively that in which the introduction of beet- 
root culture may be attempted with prospects of success, but it is cer- 
tain that withiu this baud the chances of success are greater than they 
are without it, and it also appears that all the unsuccessful attempts 
that have heretofore been made to establish the industry have been at 
points without it. It is therefore advisable that farmers or manufactur- 
ers who may design entering upon the prosecution of this industry should 
study with greatest care these intluences which o[>erate with so much 
benefit or injury upon the profit of the crop. It is evident from what 
precedes that the beet requires a cool or at least a moderate season for 
suitable progress in development, that it may not reach maturity in ad- 
vance of the time for working it into sugar, and under the influence of 
the rains and elevated tempei ature of the autumn months enter into a 
second growth, thereby destroying the valuable constituents which ren- 
ders it so desirable as a sugar-producing crop. 

"In this connection it has been suggested that in sections of pro- 
tracted warm seasons, when the root will develop and attain full ma- 
turity in August, and during the summer drought, the crop could be 
taken up before the appearance of the autumn rains, and by slicing and 
drying the roots preserve them until the arrival of the proper season. 
This mode of procedure has in fact been recommended to the agricul- 
turists of the south of France, and has, it has been stated, been the sub- 
ject of experiment in Algeria. The method has the objection of being 
a rather precarious one on account of the chances of the crop being 
caught after a long-continued drought by late heavy summer showers 
that would prove almost as injurious as the autumn rains.* 

''After the directions given by Briem and others it is scarcely neces- 
sary to recapitulate here the meteorological conditions which appear to 
be required by this culture, yet the conclusions arrived at from our 
study of the subject, in addition, nuiy not appear superfluous. The 
conditions, then, are in general, comparatively dry and warm spring 
months during the time lor preparation of the soil, planting, and culti- 
vating the crop; moderate temperature, abundant and frequent rains 
during the summer months, the time for ultimate development of the 
crop and its valuable constituents; cool dry fall, the time for ripening, 
■ harvesting, and storing the crop. If these conditions prevail, the re- 
sults will be good; otherwise they will be but medium or even bad." 

The amount of rain-fall necessary to the proper growth of sugar-beets 
depends largely on the character of the soil, the mean temperature, and 
the degree of saturation with aqueous vapor of the prevailing winds. In 
the coast valleys of California, where the proximity of the sea preserves 
a low temperature through the summer, and where the porous soil per- 
mits the tap root of the beet to descend after moisture and moisture to 

*The experiment of drying beets for preservation in Maine, in the fall of 1878, 
proved quite disastrous linancially for those who engaged in the enterprise. 



177 

asceud to the root, excellent beets are grown with little rain. The con- 
ditions would be entirely reversed in inland localities with high summer 
heats, stiff clayey soils, and arid winds. 

In general, the amount of rain-fall during the summer months in the 
Northern, Central, and Eastern United States is sufiQcient to secure a 
good growth, and therefore it may be said that proper soil and locality 
being provided, beet culture might be undertaken in such localities 
with little fear of disaster from drought, save in a few exceptional 
seasons. 

In fact, with thorough under drainage and deep subsoil plowing, it 
would be possible to secure a good crop of beets in the regions indicated 
quite independently of the variation in the amount of rain-fall. 

The chief question, therefore, to be considered, is one of temperature 
rather than of rain-fall. In the present state of our knowledge it would 
not be safe to establish beet factories very far south of the mean 
isotherm of 70° Fahr. for the three summer months, without a more 
thorough study of the character of the beets produced than has hereto- 
fore been made. The possibility of finding localities south of this line, 
where sugar-beets may be grown with profit, is not denied, but the 
necessity of further investigation is urgent. There are many places 
situated only a short distance south of this line where the soil, water 
supply, cheap fuel, and other local considerations supply peculiarly 
favorable conditions for beet culture, and in such places the industry 
would doubtless flourish, although the beet might not be quite as rich 
in sugar as when grown in a more northern locality. In all cases the 
length of the growing season should be sufficient for the complete ma- 
turity of the beet, and the freezing temperatures of winter should come 
sufficiently late to allow the beets to be safely harvested and covered. 
The shaded belt of the map, Plate 2, indicates fairly well those portions 
of the United States in which areas suited to successful beet culture 
are most likelv to be found. ' 



RECENT EXPERIMENTS LOOKING TO THE INTRODUCTION OF THE 
BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY. 

EXPERIMENTS IN INDIANA. 

Sugar beets have been grown for two seasons at the Agricultural 
Station at La Fayette, viz, 1888-'89. The experiments for 1889 were 
conducted as follows : 

The seeding took place on the 29th of April in rows 3 feet apart, and 
the plants were thinned so they stood from 4 to 6 inches apart in the 
rows, '^o information is given concerning the method of preparing the 
land and no note is made of any fertilizers used. « The beets were har- 
vested on the 23d and 25th of October. Analyses were made by the 
chemist of the station, Professor Huston, and a comparison of the j'ield 
^5474— Bull. 27—12 



178 

per acre and the percentage of sugar found in each variety is found in 
the following table : 



Variety. 



White sugar 

Imperial sugar 

Viliuorin's augar 

French yellow sugar . 
Lane's imperial sugar 



1888. 



Yield per 
acre. 



Tons. 
14.48 
14.48 
12.08 
12.07 
8.74 



Sugar. 



Pel cent. 

11.3.T 

11.67 
9.92 
11.64 
16.40 



1889. 



Yield per 
acre 



Tons. 
13.59 
1,5. 60 
13.20 
15.99 
16.80 



Sugar. 



Per cent. 
13.05 
12.80 
12. 85 
9.20 
10.40 



The mean temperature for June, July, and August, 1889, was 69.2o 
Fah., which is about 3 degrees below the average of this period for ten 
years. 

EXPERIMENTS IN MICHIGAN. 

Analyses of sugar beets groivn in Michigan in 1889, — There are no de- 
tails given of the method of planting and cultivating the beets or the 
time of planting and harvesting. The following data were furnished 
by Dr. R. 0. Kedzie, Chemist of the Agricultural Experimeut Station, 
in a letter under date of October 5, 1889 : 



No. 



Variety. 



Vilmorin Imperial, imported seed 

Beets grown on Senatoi- P.ilmer'a farm without manure 

Beets grown on Senator Palmer's farm with 200 pounds superphosphates and 200 

pounds nitrate of soda per acre 

Beets grown on Mr. Klein's farm, Oakland County 

Beets grown in Livingston County 

Beets grown by George C Anschuetz, Tawas City, imported seed 

Beets grown by George C. Anschuetz, Tawas City, American seed 



Sucrose. 



Per cent. 
14.58 
11.40 

11.40 

12. 87 
7.86 
12. 78 
13.40 



EXPERIMENTS IN WISCONSIN. 



Under authority of the Secretary of Agriculture I made arrangements 
with Prof. W. A. Henry, director of the Wiscoiisin Agricultural Ex- 
l^eriment Station, for culture experiments with th(5 sugar beet. 

The interesting and instructive report of Professor Henry follows. 

The remarkably fiivorable weather during October is a factor in the 
production of sugar beets which should not go unnoted. Only a trace 
of rain fell at Madison in October, and the season for harvesting and 
siloing could not have been better. 

The general results are encouraging, sufficiently so to justify further 
cultural work, a kind of work which may eventually result in the es- 
tablishment of factories. 



179 



REPORT ON INVESTIGATION OF .BEETS FOR SUGAR PRODUCTION IN 1889, AT THE 
WISCONSIN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, UNDER DIRECTION OF THE 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON. 

Varieties and planting. — Three varieties of seed were furnished by the 
Departmeut, one, not named, being received from the California Beet 
Sugar Company ; the other two, viz, Vilmorin's Improved and Lane's 
Imperial were received directly from Washington. The seed from Cali- 
fornia arrived in April, and was planted May 5. The other varieties, 
for some reason, did not reach Madison until June, and were planted 
June G, too late to give entirely satisfactory results as the season after 
this time was exceptionally dry, causing the beets to grow slowly. 

The beets were planted in rows 3 feet apart and were thinned to 
about 8 inches apart in the rows. They were carefully cultivated, the 
soil being kept free from weeds, and in good tilth throughout the season. 

Meteorology. — The season of 1889 was most remarkable for the very 
small rain-fall, not one-half the average amount of precipitation being 
registered for the growing season. 

May, June, and October were somewhat cooler than the average, 
while July and August were slightly warmer. 

Table I. — Showing temperature and rain-fall. 



Rain-faU. 



Temperature. 



1889. 



Mean for 
thirty- 
three 
years. 



Mean 
for 1889. 



Mean for 
thirty- 
three 
years. 



Highest 
1889. 



Lowest 



May 

June 

July 

August 

September 
October... 



Inches. 
3.28 
2 

2.12 

.72 

1.93 

traoe. 



Inches. 
3.6 
4.7 
4.31 
3.49 
3.37 
3.04 



° J?". 
56! 1 
63.4 
74.3 
70 

61.18 
46.1 



57.9 
67.2 
72.6 
69.5 
6L2 
48.8 



° F. 
82 
83.3 
91.6 
90.5 
90.2 
75.5 



°F. 



34.2 

42.2 

54.7 

51 

34.8 

29 



Development of the sugar in the heet root. — The first analyses were made 
September 20, and after this date beets from each lot were frequently 
examined until they were harvested to protect them from the frost on 
October 22. 

The following table gives the per cent, of sugar in the juice from each 
variety at the dates when examined. The determinations were made 
with the polariscope. 

Table II. — Showing per cent, of sugar in juice of beets at different periods. 



Vilmorin's Improved. 


Lane's Imperial. 


California Beet Sugar Company. 


Date. 


Per cent. 


Date. 


Per cent. 


Date. 


Per cent. 




8.07 
10. 35 
10. CO 
11.95 
15.60 




7.97 
14.40 
15. GO 




8.074 


September 22 


October 11 




9.68 








10. 05 






October 15 


11.54 








October 22 


14.50 













180 

Grading the beets. — The beets were harvested October 22, at which 
time they were divided into two grades, the classification being based 
upon the shape and manner of growth. The first grade represents those 
roots that were comparatively smooth and conical in shape. The beets 
of the second class were irregnlar in shape, with large, scraggly roots. 

This second type of beets was not scattered uniformly through the 
plot, but grew in patches of three, four, or a dozen together, itodicating 
that some local peculiarity of the soil or treatment was the cause of 
their irregular development. 

Abnormal beets. — A few beets differed in type from the others in grow- 
ing partly out of the ground. Analyses to determine the sugar from 
the parts above and below ground are presented in the following table. 

Table III. — Showing percentage of sugar in diifereut parts of beets. 



Part of beet. 



Weight. 



Sngar in 
juice. 



So ->'> J 'C'PPer half 
^"• — ) Lower half, 
No •>•} 5 Upper half. 
-''^°- -*^ J Lower half 



Qrams. 
664 
449 
345 
570 



Per cent. 

9.89 

10.12 

11.81 

11.46 



Though the percentage of sugar in the two parts of the beet does not 
vary much, the percentage for the whole beet is low. 

Yield per acre. — At harvesting, the beets and tops were weighed sep- 
arately. In the following table is shown the weight of the two grades, 
the tops, and the average weight of each beet-root. 

Table IV. — Shoiving yield of beets and weight of tops per acre. 



Variety. 



California Beet Sugar Company 

Vilmorin's Improved 

Lane's Imperial 



No. of 
beets. 



16, 233 
15, 770 
14, 713 



Weight 

of No. 1 

Ueets. 



Pounds. 
13, 353 
12, 211 
11, 856 



Weight 
of No. 2 
beets. 



Pounds. 
5,938 
3,384 
4,501 



Total 
weight. 



Pounds. 
19,291 

15, 595 

16, 367 



Average 
weight. 



Pounds. 
1.18 
.99 
Lll 



The total yield of beets is much smaller than is usually reported. This 
is partly due to the season, but chiefly to the distance of the rows apart, 
it being the custom to plant them only 17 or 18 inches instead of 3 feet, 
as in this case. 

The table shows that from a fourth to a third of all the roots graded 
as No. 2. 

Both types of beets from the California Beet Sugar Company's seed 
were examined for sugar, two analyses of each being made, with the 
following results, which show that the No. 1 beets are the richest in 
sugar : 



181 

Table V. — Shoxving per cent, of sugar in No. 1 and No. 2 beets. 





No. 1 beets. 

Sugar in 

juice. 


No. 2 beets. 

Sugar in 

juice. 


Ko. 1 


Per cent. 
14.83 
14.47 


Per cent. 
14. 12 
13.50 


No. 2 


14.54 


13.81 





Impurities in the juice.— Analyses were made to determine the quality 
of the juice for the mauufcicture of sugar. The following table gives 
the per cent, of sugar, of solids, and the specific gravity of the juice 
at the dates mentioned. 

Table VI. — Showing j^^^ cent of solids and sugar in the juice. 



Variety. 



Lane's Imperial 

California Beet Sugar Company 

Do .". 

Do 

Do 

Do 



Date of 
analysis. 



Oct. 11 
Oct. 15 
Nov. 29 
Dec. 4 
do.... 
Dec. 5 



Solids in 
juice. 




Sugar in 
juice. 



Per cent. 
14.40 
14.53 
14.12 
14.83 
14.47 
13.50 



Specific 

gravity of 

juice. 



1.10 

1.08 

1.085 

1.09 

1.0825 

1.08 



Quality of the juice in stored beets. — The harvested beets were stored 
in a barn cellar, the door of which was left open for circulation of air 
until danger of freezing. The temperature of the cellar ranged from 
44° to 41° Fah. by a dry-bulb thermometer, and uniformly 1 degree 
lower by a wet-bulb thermometer, showing that the air was quite damp. 
Under these conditions the beets kept well. For the sugar content we 
may refer to Table VI, where the California beets show 14.53 per cent 
of sugar in the juice October 15, one week before they were taken from 
the ground for storage. The analyses for November 29 and the three 
succeeding dates show the percentage of sugar in the juice of the stored 
beets. 

Conclusion. — Considering the season, the time of planting, and the con- 
ditions of culture, the beets certainly showed a very satisfactory^ sugar 
content. The weather being quite abnormal, it is but fair to withhold 
general statements until the work is repeated for at least one season. 
If this line is continued, an effort will be made to plant and cultivate 
after the manner of beet fields in sugar districts. 



EXPERIMENTS IN IOWA. 



Experiments were made at the Agricultural Experiment Station at 
Ames during 1888 and 1889, and the results of these experiments are 
published in Bulletin No. 8 of the Station, images 321 to 320, inclusive. 



182 

These experiments were conducted under the direction of Prof. G. E. 
Patrick. 

Four varieties of sugar-beets were grown in 1888 and two in 1889. 
Those grown in 1888 were from seed purchased from seedsmen in 
America under the names given below. The roots were harvested in due 
season and stored in a good root-cellar, but were not analyzed till Jan- 
uary, 1889. For the methods of sampling and analysis reference is 
made to the bulletin above noted. 

The varieties grown in 1888 were White Sugar Beet, Excelsior, Val- 
morin's Improved, and Lane's Improved. The mean weight of the first 
variety was 14.5 ounces ; of the second, 17 ounces ; of the third, 19 
ounces, and of the fourth, 18 ounces. The results of the analyses of the 
juice of the difiereut varieties are as follows : 



Variety. 



Solids, Brix 
at 17.5° C. 



Sucrose. 



Purity coef- 
ticient. 



White Sugar Beet. . . 

Excelsior 

Vilmorin's Improved 
Lane's Improved 



19.50 
16.14 
19.33 
19. 10 



Per cent. 
U.12 
12.73 
15.00 
14.47 



73.7 
78.8 
77.6 
75.7 



Professor Patrick makes the following remarks on the analyses: 

These results taken by themselves leud some eucouragement to the hope that the 
climate and soil of Iowa may iirove well adapted to the development of sugar in the 
sugar-beet. 

But a single year's trial in a single locality goes but little way in settling so great 
a question. 

Different seasons as well as different soils will have their influence, and sometimes 
a marked one, on the quality of the crop. This truth, or if not this then another one 
which the investigator of these subjects must always bear in mind, namely, that seeds 
purchased from dealers are not always true to their catalogue names, is well illus- 
trated by the results obtained in 1889 as compared with those of 1888, above recorded. 

Two varieties were grown in 1889, viz, Lane's Improved and Vil- 
morin's Improved. The analyses were made on November 20-23. 
These beets were planted on the same ground as those of the previous 
year, but the ground had received a good dressing of barn-yard manure 
for the crop of 1889. The mean weights were as follows : 

Lane's Improved, 42 ounces; Vilmorin's Improved, 25 ounces. The 
results of the analyses of the expressed juice were as follows : 



Variety. 



Lane's Improved . 

Vilmorin's Improved 



Solids, 
Brix., at 

17.5° C. 



13.32 
17.80 



Sucrose. 



Per cent. 

7.82 

12.64 



Parity, 

coetiicient. 



58." 
71.0 



The disastrous results of manuring beets with barn yard manure are 
easily seen from the above table. The beets grew to an enormous size, 



183 

iuul were couseqiiently low in sugar. Professor Patrick supposed that 
tlie low content of sugar was due only in part to the manuring, and he 
accounts for it as follows : 

First, by the character of the season in 1889— dry in the early part, cold and wet 
toward tlie end — together with the enrichment of the land with baru-yard luannre. 

Second, and with reference to the Lane's Improved mainly, by the quality of the 
seed, the same having come, without doubt, from stock badly crossed with an inferior 
kind of beet. This conclusion is reached as much from the appearance of the beets 
within and without, as from the results of analysis. The similar experience of many 
beside ourselves makes it evident that sugar-beet seed purchased from American seeds- 
men is verj' liable to prove untrue and disappointing. 

For these reasons we do not regard the results of 1889 as having any real signifi- 
cance in the question of the adaptability of Iowa's soil and climate to the needs of 
the sugar-beet. 

In addition to the work done with the beets grown at the Station a 
box of beets was received on the 19th of November, 1889, from Mercer 
County, 111., sent by Edward H. Thayer, of Clinton, Iowa. The seed 
frdm which these beets were obtained was purchased in Germany, but 
the names of the varieties are not known. The mean weight of the 
beets was 23.5 onnces. They contained of sngar 15.25 per cent in the 
juice, and a purity coefficient of 75.73. It is evident from the above 
that the beets from Illinois were grown without the use of barn-yard 
manure and, although a little above size, were much better in every 
way for the production of sugar than the beets grown at the Station. 

From the results obtained, it is not difficult to see that the soil and 
climate of Iowa are far better suited to the growth of the sugar-beet, 
for sugar-i^roducing purposes, than for sorghum. In the experiments 
made with sorghum at the Iowa Station, and which are given on pages 
327 to 336, inclusive, of the bulletin above mentioned, the mean per- 
centage of sucrose in the juice of the Early Amber was found to be 14.11, 
while the purity coefficient was 7G.70. The hopelessness, however, of 
expecting to make sorghum sugar i)rofitably in Iowa is sufficiently in- 
dicated by the statement made on page 328 of the bulletin, which is as 
follows : 

On the night of September 18 there came a killing frost, which within three days 
withered the cane leaves and soured the sap in the stalks, thus reducing onr season 
for selective work to only ten days. 

With a season of such brief duration, which is almost certain to 
be ended in September, it is not to be expected that sorghum sugar can 
be made successfully. With the beet it is quite different, since by proper 
siloing the season for manufacture can be continued indefinitely. 

EXPERIMENTS IN NEBRASKA. 

The following report*, by Professors Nicholson and Lloyd, on the 
growth of the sugar beet in Nebraska from seed received from the De- 
partment of Agriculture, shows the progress made in that State during 

*For full report see Bulletin 13, Nebraska Station. 



184 

the past year in the cultivation of the sugar beet under the auspices of 
the agricultural experiment station of the State. 

REPORT ON THK DISTRIBUTION OF SEED RECEIVED BY THE DEPAUTMKNT OK CHEM- 
ISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, AT 
AVASIIINGTON, D. C. 

Varieties received. — I. Sugar beets, Lane's Imperial and Vilmorin 
II. Sugar Cane, Early Amber, and Eed Siberian. 

But two persons reported results from sugar cane seed, in both cases 
a large proportion of the seed failed to germinate. 

Analysis of two specimens of EarlyAmber cane sent in, gave,respect- 
ively, 13 and 12.41 per cent of sucrose. 

In regard to sugar beets, twelve 8amj)les of seed of Lane's Imperial 
were sent out. 

Seven persons returned specimens of beets raised accompanied by 
very brief reports ; all reported poor seed. 

Average per cent of sucrose in these beets was 4.66 ; highest, 6.0S ; 
lowest, 2.50. 

Thirty-three samples of seed of Vilmorin were sent out. 

Twenty-three persons returned to us specimens of beets raised, ac- 
companied by brief reports which gave but little information, except 
that a large proportion of the seed did not germinate. 

In fifteen of the beets the per cent of sucrose ranged above. Average 
of the fifteen specimens, 14.67 ; average of the eight (under 10) speci- 
mens, 6.97 ; average of the entire lot, 11.99 ; highest per cent, in whole 
lot, 20.28; lowest per cent, in whole lot, 4.73. 

Analysis of sugar beets, chemical laboratory. University of Nebraska. 



No. 


Date. 


1 


Oct. 28 


2 


Oci. 29 


3 


...do .. 


4 


..do .... 


.■> 


...do .... 


6 


Oct. 30 


7 


Nov. 15 


8 


...do.... 


9 


...do.... 



Consignor. 



B. Kemple 

C Aim.stioDg 

M. Bates 

. M. Lowraan . 

:i Ford 

do 

r. Riiiker 

Bate.s 



M 
F. 
S. G. Johnson 



Variety. 



Vilmorin 

...do 

Unknown 

Viliuoriu 

do 

Red beet 

Lane's Imperial .. 



Sucrose. 



Per cent. 
13.28 
11.49 
19.52 
9.91 
10.14 
10.13 
15.32 
13.51 
9.69 



Glucose. 



Per cent 
0.370 
0.010 
0.010 
0. 052 
0.009 
0.017 
0.230 
0.100 
0.160 



21.6 

17 

23.7 

19.3 

20.4 

19.3 

23.7 

23.7 

23.7 



Specific 
gravity. 



1.098 
1.070 
1.100 
1.082 
1.085 
1.080 
1.100 
1.100 
1.100 



Co-effi- 
cient of 
purity. 



H. H. Nicholson, Director. 
Kachel liLOYD, Analyst. 



EXPERIMENTS AT GRAND ISLAND, NEBRASKA. 



Great success also attended the growing of sugar beets in Nebraska, 
at Grand Island, in 188S. As will be seen by the following table, sam- 
ples of these beets were analyzed by various chemists, and all found 
them excellent for sugar-making purposes. 



185 



Brix. 


Sugar. 


Co-efficient 
of purity. 


Brix. 


Sugar. 


Co-efficient 
of purity. 




Per cent. 






Per cent. 




*17.2 


14.9 


86.00 


+16.0 


13. 71 


85.70 


*18.9 


16.1 


85.00 


:i7.1 


14.2 


83.00 


*19.5 


17.5 


89.00 


§16.3 


13. 10 


80.40 


*21.4 


19.2 


90. 00 


1118.9 


15.8 


83.60 


*19.7 


16.7 


84.00 


1118.2 


15. 20 


83.50 


*21.8 


19.8 


90.00 


1118.4 


15.90 


86.40 


tl8.8 


16.4 


87.10 









* Analyzed by Prof. William Hucli, from Shoemingen, Geruianv. 

t Beet.s harve.sted Octol>er 15. 1888 pre.served in silo, analyzed January 2, 1889. 

t Analyzed by Dr. Pauly, of Muhlberg, Gerraauy. 

§ Analyzed by Dr. Mueller, of Ottleben, Germany. 

II Analyzed by Dr. Janke, Trendlebush, Germany. 

Samples of these beets were also sent to the Department for analysis 
and entered as Nos. 6077 and G078. The results of these analyses were 
as follows : 



6077. 



6078. 



Juice extracted 

Total solids in juice 

Sucrose 

Purity 



Per cent. 
56.16 
18.40 
15.38 
83.59 



Per cent. 
54. 70 

18.80 
15.75 
83.77 



As will be seen by the above analyses these beets were very rich in 
sugar, and if they could be grown in large quantities, which there is no 
reason to doubt, would indicate that in that locality the beet sugar in- 
dustry could be successfully established. 



EXPERIMENTS IN SOUTH DAKOTA. 

Experiments were made at the Agricultural Experiment Station at 
Brookings, which are reported in Bull. No. 16, by Luther Foster, 
agriculturist, and James H. Shepard, chemist. 

THE SUGAR-BEET. 

The station has completed its second season's test of the sugar-beet, 
and the result gives us still better evidence of its crop value to South 
Dakota both for stock feeding and sugar making. While the crop was 
not as great either in per cent of sugar or yield of roots per acre as may 
reasonably be expected in more favorable seasons, or by following more 
strictly the French and German methods of fertilizing and cultivating, 
it was still sufficiently large to insure it a profitable crop even under 
the opposing influences of the past season. 

Preparation of soil. — In the whole matter of soil preparation, fer- 
tilizing, and cultivating, nothing has been attempted that is not within 
the reach of the ordinary farmer, and our results are no better than he 
may reasonably expect. In mechanical preparation the soil was almost 
perfect for such a crop, the ground having been deeply plowed and 
thoroughly pulverized. The results of long-continued experiments in 



186 

beet-growing countries indicate an average depth in plowing of from 12 
to 15 inches to insure the largest and best yield. Deep plowing pre- 
vents forking; it also provides a depth of mellow soil sufficient for the 
growth of the root entirely beneath the surface. Where beets grow 
partly above the soil the protruding portion becomes tinted and re- 
quires extra work in clarifying the sugar. Fall is the best time for 
plowing. It leaves a rough, uneven surface to weather, catch moisture, 
and settle. The final preparation should be made at planting time, 
avoiding any plowing or deep stirring that would cause a loss of the 
accumulated moisture of the winter. Thorough preparation before 
planting is of prime importance. Any neglect here will be a source of 
frequent annoyance and delay throughout the season of planting and 
cultivation. The clod-crusher and roller will greatly assist in this 
work. 

Fertilising. — The ground used for the experiment had received a 
heavy coat of well-rotted manure last year and was in excellent condi- 
tion to nourish the season's crop. It is a fact well established by beet- 
growers that a t-oo abundant supply of stable manure lessens the i)er 
cent of sugar. This results from a period of growth too rank and too 
much prolonged. To produce sugar the growth must be arrested in 
time for complete maturity. The dry, clear weather of this climate is 
favorable to this result. Stable manure should be applied and plowed 
under in the fall and not more than 15 tons per acre used. 

Planting. — Experience has taught that the method of planting is of 
vastly greater importance than is ordinarily considered. It has been 
shown that not only the yield per acre but also the per cent of sugar 
depends largely on the manner of planting. Thin planting — rows wide 
apart and plants well separated from each other in the row — gives beets 
of the largest size but containing a small per cent of sugar, while the 
largest yield per acre both in per cent of sugar and quantity of beets 
is obtained from the thickest planting — rows narrow and beets close 
together in the row. In Dakota the high price of hand labor and cheap- 
ness of land would place the limit of thick planting to that width of row 
that can be easily cultivated with horse implements. That limit has 
been placed at 20 inches, but even 24 inches seems quite narrow for 
most of our single cultivators. Our i)lanting in most cases has been 
made in rows thirty inches apart with the plants thinned to 8 inches 
apart in the row. One-half more plants can be grown with rows 20 
inches apart, and with almost a half gretiter yield in pounds and a de- 
cidedly larger per cent of sugar. Our thickest planting was made in 
rows 14 inches apart with plants thinned to 6 inches apart in the row. 
This planting produced beets smallest in size but uniformly richest in 
per cent of sugar. It is generally admitted that the saccharine rich- 
ness is inversely proportioned to the volume of the beet and that close 
planting gives beets of richer, better quality, of larger yield in weight 
and per cent of sugar, and at the same time exhausts the soil less. 



187 

The past season's plautiug was done the lOtli day of May by hand. 
The furrows were made with an ordinary hand marker to whose run- 
ners had been attached small triangular pieces of wood to deepen and 
widen the marks. The furrows were 1^ inches deep ; in these the seeds 
were drilled with a garden seeder and covered with the' hoe, the cover- 
ing being well-firmed to make it hold the moisture. The porous shell 
encasing the seed makes an extra amount of moisture necessary to 
reach the real seed within and cause it to grow. In this dry climate care 
should be taken to put the seeds down fully an inch and a half in 
order to secure the moisture needed to start them. Garden seed drills 
when used for planting should be in the hands of skillful operators to 
insure satisfactory results. Hand-planting has resulted best in our 
work. 

Germination may be hastened by soaking the seeks in hot water for 
twenty-four hours just before planting. They can easily be made 
dry enough to plant with a machine by rolling them in piaster or dry 
soil. 

Varieties planted. — The following is a- list of the varieties planted 
with the names of the firms from which the seeds were purchased and 
the price paid for them per pound. When planted with a drill from 
6 to 10 pounds per acre will be required, the amount depending upon 
the distance the rows are placed apar-t. Imperial, Silisian and red-top 
were furnished by D. Landreth & Sons, Philadelphia, at 40 cents per 
pound. Vilmorins imperial, Lane's improved and white sugar came, 
from J. C. Yaughan, Chicago, the first at 60 cents and the others at 40 
cents per pound. Salzer's imperial and sweet white, John A. Salzer, 
of La Crosse, supplied at 20 cents per pound. 

In some instances the varieties are the same, no doubt, with different 
names. 

Cultivation. — Early cultivation will kill the weeds at starting and 
form a layer of mellow earth which constitutes an obstacle to dryness. 

The loosened layer acts as a mulch and tends to keep the soil below 
cooler while it prevents the water from reaching the surface to be 
evaporated. 

The crop of the past season was twice hoed and four times cultivated. 
The implement used for the latter was an adjustable spring-tooth culti- 
vator. This work began soon after the plants were up and continued 
until the middle of July. 

Thinning.— This work can best be done just after a rain. The plants 
should be thinned to the proper distance in the row before the roots 
begin to develop. Where the planting is done with a drill, a sharp hoe 
may be used for thinning. The cutting must be deep enough to prevent 
any after growth of the roots cut off. In case the extra plants are 
pulled out, care should be taken not to loosen those that remain stand- 
ing and thus check their growth. If the weather is favorable at the 
time of thinning the blank places may be filled in by transplanting. 



188 

but the roots of the latter are usually found in several divisions instead 
of a single tap root. 

Harvesting. — The crop should be pulled and stored in the root cellar 
or put in piles convenient for covering in the field before there is any 
danger of injury from freezing. In this respect they require more at- 
tention than other root crops. A temperature low enough to freeze 
the surface of the ground will destroy their keeping qualities. Beets 
injured in this manner should be fed out at once that they may not be 
an entire loss. Though the injury may seem at first very slight ex- 
perience has shown us that they soon become spongy, then turn black, 
and finally rot. The usual plan of twisting off the tops as the beets 
are pulled has proven in our experience the safest and most economic 
method. While turnips, rutabagas, and carrots are not materially in- 
jured for keeping by having the root cut or broken, a beet so injured 
is apt to decay when stored. 

Storing. — Sugar-beets and mangles require the same treatment in 
storage. 

They should be placed in cool, moist cellars, making the piles not to 
exceed 4 feet in depth. In our dry Dakota cellars it is best to cover 
with damp earth to keep them from wilting. This will also help to pro- 
tect from freezing. The dirt must be put directly on the beets, no straw 
or litter of any kind interv^ening. In this way we have kept them in 
the best condition into May. 

VALUE FOR STOCK-FEEDING. 

For feeding, the sugar-beet and mangle are the most reliable of all 
the root crops. Taken as a whole they have fewer enemies and are less 
liable to failure than almost any other crop grown in the State. 

They are less liable to disease than either rutabagas or turnips, and 
less easily affected by drought. They also surpass them for feed in per 
cent of digestible nutrients. When the feeding v'alue of 100 pounds of 
sugar-beets is 19 cents, that of 100 pounds of rutabagas is 15 and of 
turnips only 11 cents. 

When properly stored they keep in good condition for feeding longer 
than any other root crop, under favorable circumstances keeping clear 
through the feeding season until the grass is ready to pasture in the 
spring. Both the feeding and keeping qualities depend upon complete 
maturity. Bulk of crop is not the only thing to be sought, neither are 
roots of unusually large size desirable. For the most satisfactory re- 
sults in feeding, seek rather the weight in many roots of medium size 
perfectly ripened. Koots can not be relied on to supersede either hay 
or grain, but by being fed with them they greatly increase the value of 
both. Their succulence makes them an excellent stomach regulator, 
preventing the constipation that frequently comes form the continued 
use of dry foods. It is this quality, too, that makes them of special 
value to the dairyman for keeping up" the flow of milk. They replace 



189 

to a large degree the greeu succulent food of summer. All the stock 
on the farm relish sugar beets in winter. Sheep do excellently on them, 
and the greater part of their winter's supply of food maj^ come from 
this source. A quantity should always be kept for ewes that wean their 
lambs before the grass starts. It should be noted, however, that for 
some time before the lambs come the ewe's ration of roots should be 
small since it is generally conceded that a full supply at this time has 
a tendency to produce abortion. 

Hogs kept through the winter for breeding purposes should have a 
daily allowance of cut or pulped beets in connection with their dry food. 
They can thus be more economically kept, and they come through the 
winter healthier and in every way better prepared to farrow and raise 
their pigs. In all cases the roots fed should be cut into pieces small 
enough to prevent choking. A spade may be used for this purpose, 
but a root cutter is more convenient and does the work better and much 
more rapidly. 

The beets were analyzed the last week in October. All the sam- 
ples were in good condition. Samples 10, 11, and 12 were of the same 
variety, and were planted in different widths of rows and at different 
distances apart in the row. No. 11 was planted in rows 30 inches 
apart and thinned to 8 inches. No. 11 was thinly planted and No. 
12 was planted very thickly. From an inspection of the table which 
follows it will be seen that the sugar yield depends largely on the man- 
ner of planting, other things being equal. It will also be interesting 
to compare the yield of sugar with the size of the beets : 

[Four beets taken In each sample.] 





Weights. 




No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


Sample 8 


Lbs. oz. 
12 

103 

lU 
2 13" 

1 11 
1 i 

9J 

1 2i 
154 
13J 


Lbs. oz. 

1 i 

2 4J 
1 .5i 
4 13 
1 »i 
1 154 
1 6 

1 13 

2 31 
15 


Lbs. oz. 

1 lOi 

2 lOJ 

2 12 
7 15i 

1 14J 

3 44 

2 2 
2 7 

2 n 

1 13| 


Lbs. oz. 

2 5>i 


9 


2 14i 

3 13i 
15 8^ 


10 


11 


12 


2 7^ 


13 


5 4i 


14 


3 14J 

4 7' 


15 .• 


16 


5 124 
2 14 


17 







In selecting samples for analysis, twelve beets of each variety were 
sent to the laboratory. These ranged from the smallest to the largest 
average beet which the variety afforded. At the laboratory four i)iles 
were made and from each pile an average beet was taken, thus securing 
a fair representation for each sample. 

In obtaining the degree Bris, the pulp was placed in a canvas bag 
and the juice was forced out by hand. No press was available. 



190 



i^-s 



Name. 



Sileaian 

White 

Lane's Improved (ordinary plant 

iug). 
Lane's Improved (tbinly planted) . 
Laue's Improved (thickly planted) 

Red Top 

Imperial 

Vihnorin's Imperial 

Salzoi's Imperial 

Sweet "White 



Per ct. 
lb 
94 



tH 



Lbs. 
23, GOO 
27, 900 

31, 200 

14, 840 
J6, 680 
23, 850 

15, 3-20 
25, 400 
29, 070 

32, 500 



Per ct. 

10.0 

8.2 

10.2 

5.4 
9.9 
10.2 
9.9 
12.3 
11.0 
11.2 



14.2 
12.4 
15.3 

10.4 
15.2 
15.1 
]4. 
17.4 
14.6 
15.6 



Per ct. 
3.76 
3.00 
3.56 

3.12 
3.63 
3.85 
3.94 
4.10 
3.27 
3.91 



Condition of 
pulp. 



Dry. 

Somewhat dry. 
Do. 

Moderately dry. 
Dry. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Moderately dry. 
Dry. 



Again hope is expressed that farmers will raise small quantities of 
the sugar-beet. All samples delivered at the Station laboratory will 
be analyzed free of charge. 

Samples which had been harvested for three months were sent to the 
Department from Sturgis, S. Dak., in January, 1889, and entered under 
ISTo. 6162, a rose-colored beet, and No. 6163, a white beet. These sam- 
ples were sent by W. C. Buderus, of Sturgis, S. Dak. On examination 
of these beets the following numbers were obtained : 



6162. 



6163. 



Juice extracted 

Total solids in juice 

Sucrose 

Purity 



Per cent. 
36.05 
20.40 
13.32 
65.29 



Per cent. 

42.77 

21.48 

15.03 

■ 69.97 



The low purity of the beets represented above was doubtless due to 
the fact that they had been harvested for a long time and no precautions 
taken to j)reserve them from deterioration. The analyses show that 
such beets could also be profitably used for sugar-makiug if worked up 
in a fresh state or preserved in proper kinds of silos. 

EXPERIMENTS IN KANSAS. 

Tht Medicine Lodge Sugar Company last year (1889) made a series of 
experiments in the growth of sugar beets and the manufacture of sugar 
the details of which follow : 

Number of acres planted in beets 4.7 

Tons of topped and cleaned beets produced 60. 23 

Pounds of sugar made 10, 158 

Gallons of molasses obtained 380 

Of the total sugar made, 2,800 pounds were second sugars. 

The beets did not receive altogether the attention which they should 
have had, and many of them grew quite a distance above ground. The 
beets were worked without any special appliances, but solely with 



191 

the sorghum macbiuery which was at the factory. For this cause it 
is reasonable to suppose that the best manufacturiug results were 
not obtained. Nevertheless, the results are gratifying, and show that 
with such a season as last, sugar beets can be grown in Kansas with a 
fair percentage of sucrose. In many cases the beets grown last year 
were of extraordinary size, in one instance weighing 12 pounds. By 
more careful preparation of the soil, and planting the beets closer to- 
gether, and proper cultivation, it is reasonable to believe that a higher 
mean content of sugar might be obtained. The details of the analyses 
of the beets, by Mr. T. F. Sanborn, of this division, and the manufacture 
thereof are found in the following table : 



Medicine Lodge, Kansas, season o/1889. — Siujar beets. 





Date. 


Serial 
No. 


Degree 
Biix. 


Sucrose 
in the 
juice. 


Purity. 




Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 


264 
269 


1.60 
2. 24 


Per cent. 
.62 
.82 


38 75 


Do 


32.14 








1.92 


.72 


35. 44 




Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 


265 

270 






13.74 
12.09 


9.00 
9.67 


65 50 


1)0 


71 71 






Mean 


12.92 


9.32 


68 60 




Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 


266 
271 






10.83 
10.99 


7.88 
7.37 


72. 76 


Do 


67 15 








10.91 


7.62 

7.77 
6.35 


69 95 




Nov. 14 
JTov. 15 


267 
273 






11.64 
10.65 


66 58 


Do 


59 62 






Mean 


11.14 


7.06 


63 10 




Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 


268 

274 






29.32 
25.26 


18.80 
18.10 


64 12 


Do 


71 61 








27.29 


18.45 


67 87 




Nov. 16 
Nov. 24 


22 
24 






77.71 
85.68 


34.04 
49.51 


43 82 


Do 


57 78 






Tvrpiap 


8^69 


41.77 


50 80 




Nov. 14 
Nov. 15 






Marc 




4.69 
5.01 




Do... 
















Mean 




4.85 















Nov. 15. Scum from clarifieB.s 

Nov. 15. Scum from clarifiers, less lime 



Sucrose, 
.percent.. 5.00 
.percent.. 3.00 



POLARIZATION OF SUGAPvS. 



Date. 


Serial 

No. 


Sucrose. 


November 19 


16 

17 


Per cent. 
90 9 


November 24 


99 7 






Mean 


95 3 


. 







Sugar not washed. No. 16, reboiled. 



192 



Miscellaneous sainpltn of beds from field. 



Date. - 


Serial 
No. 


Degree 
Brix. 


Sucrose 
in the . 
juice. 


—Purity. 


Alls. 23 

Sept 2 . . 


7 
62 
64 
70 
120 
190 
306 
317 
318 
319 
320 
321 
322 


19.62 
11.01 
12.69 
10.20 
1,5. 58 
18.66 
13.75 
15.59 
13.55 
16.28 
16.80 
14.26 
16.17 


Per cent. 

14.58 

7. 25 

9.25 

6.95 

11.75 

11.75 

9. 35 

11.00 

9.35 

13.10 

13.95 

10.40 

12.65 


74.31 
6.i. 88 


3 


78.81 


4 


68.23 


13 


75. 42 


21 


62. 96 


Nov. 8 


68.00 


11 


70.55 


12 .. 


69.00 


12 


80.46 


12 


81.84 


12 


72.93 


12 


78.23 








J 9. 62 
10.20 
14.93 


14.58 
6.95 
10. 85 


81.84 






62. 96 






72.64 









Mr. Fred Hinze cultivated an experimental plot of sugar beets at 
Douglass, Kaus., during the season of 1888. Considering the dryness 
of the climate and tlie high temperature reached during the summer, 
the results appear to be favorable, I am inclined to think, however, 
that the successful cultivation of the sugar beet for manufacturing pur- 
poses can not be looked for in such a climate as obtains at Douglass in 
competition with more favorable localities. 

The analyses of the sugar beets at this station were made from time to 
time by my assistants at Douglass who had charge of the chemical 
work at the sorghum factory at th at place. Following are the results 
of the work : 



Date. 


Degree 
Brix. 


Sucrortein 
thejuice. 


CoefScient 
of purity. 


Sejit. 3 


13.58 
11.67 
12, 45 
16.74 
14.70 
14.43 
15.95 


Per cent. 
9.27 
7.96 
8.16 
12.38 
9.47 
10.47 
11.98 


67.64 
68.30 
65.46 
73.96 
64.42 
72.69 
75.11 


3 


3 


10 


20 


29 


Oct. 11 


Highest 

Lowest 

Average .. 


16.74 
11. o7 
14.22 


12.38 
7.96 
9.36 


75.11 
64.42 
69.65 



EXPERIMENTS IN CALIFORNIA.* 

The AJvarado, Ual., beet-sugar factory is situated on the east side of 
the bay, 24 miles from San Francisco. 

The climate of Alvarado is a peculiar one, and, as experience has 
shown, very suitable to the development of a first-class sugar beet. 

The winters are mild. Fhuitiug begins in February and can be con- 
tinued up to the middle of May. The early planting matures in the 



Bull. No. 5, p]). 75 et seg, 



193 




* From Sugar ludustry ot the United States, j). 77, BuJleliu No. 5, Cheiuical Division, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. 

25174— Bull. 27—43 



194 

summer aud the factory can be started by the middle of August. From 
this time until December there is a consecutive maturity of beets. The 
summers and falls are dry, and there is little danger of the beets taking 
a second growth by reason of early rains. 

When harvested the beets do not require to be siloed, but are kept in 
heaps either with no covering at all or at most a little straw. 

In the middle of December, 1884, the company had nearly 20,000 tons 
of beets on hand. 

In Fig. 43 is seen this immense pile of beets, covering over 2 acres of 
surface and of 8 feet mean depth. 

The land on which these beets are grown is level, the soil sandy and 
fertile, stretching from the bay eastward to the hills, a breadth of from 
5 to 10 miles. 

The following tables, i)repared at my request by Mr. E. Dyer, suj)er 
iutendent of factory, exhibit the data collected from twelve dififereut 
fields, representiug a fair average of all the land in cultivation for beets 
in 1884. 

The analyses represent a fair sample of beets taken from all the 
wagons during each day the beets were brought to the factory. The 
kind of seed used is also indicated in the tables. 

Formerly all the seed planted was imported, but the company is now 
raising its own seed, aud with the most encouraging results. 

The expression "first and second year" indicates that the seed was 
native and one or two years from the imported seed. 

In all the analyses made at Alvarado the sucrose is calculated on the 
weight of the beet and not of the juice. 

PIELD OF JOHN LOWKIE. 



Date. 



1884. 
Sept 10 

20 
25 
30 
1 
5 
10 
15 
20 
24 
28 
9 
13 
16 
18 
22 
24 
Dec. 5 



Oct. 



Nov. 



Kind of seed used. 



Native red, first year 

Native wliite, .second year . 

Native red, tir.st year 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

... do 

Native white, second year. 

Native red, fii st vear 

do '. 

do 



P.ct. 
15.9 
16.9 
17.3 
17.9- 
17.2 
18.5 
17.7 
17.8 
17. 
16.0 
l;!. 7 
17.4 
16.5 
14.8 
14.5 
13. 
17. 
10.2 
1.5.4 
1.5.6 



P.ct. 

13.4 

13.9 

14.9 

15.6 

15.1 

15.7 

14.7 

15.5 

14.4 

14. 

12.6 

14.3 

1.3. 5 

11.5 

12.5 

10.4 

14.9 

13.7 

1.3.2 

13.2 



P.ct. 
2.5 
3. 

2.4 
2 3 
2.1 
2.1 
3. 

2.3 
2.6 
2.6 
3.1 
3.1 



2.0 
2.4 
2.5 



P. ct. 

84.2 

82.2 

86.1 

85.7 

87.7 

84.8 

83. 

87.6 

84.7 

84. 

80. 

82.1 

81.2 

77.1 

86.2 

80. 

87. 6 

84. 5 

85.7 

84.4 



Kemarks. 



I'lantbd 315 acres; not all 
harvested yet ; will aver. 
a;;e between 15 to 20 tons 
per acre. 



195 



FIELD OF a AZEVADA 



Kind of seed used. 



Native white, second j'ear . 

Native red, first year 

do ■ 

Native white, second year 



4 




ri 






o 






1 




^ 


£ S 








aj P< 


o 




-=j 


®'i; 


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M 


o 


o« 


P.cf. 


r. ct. 


P.ci. 


P. c«. 


17. 


14. 


3. 


82.9 


10.2 


13.2 


2.4 


85.1 


10.8 


14.3 


2.3 


8G.3 


17.4 


15.4 


2. 


88.5 



Kemarks. 



Planted 10 acres; had 153.8 
tons ; yield per acre, 15.3 
tons. 



FIELD OF JAMES NARCISSO. 



Native white 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

......do 



second vear. 



16.1 
10.5 
15.2 
1.5.2 
10.9 
17.1 
15.0 



13.1 

13.0 

13. 

12.3 

Ki. 5 

U.3 

12.8 



3. 
2.9 

2. 2 
2.9 
3.4 
3.8 
2. 



81.3 
82.4 
85.1 
80.9 
79.8 
83.0 
82. 



Planted 10 acrea ; had 237 
tons ; yield per acre, 23.7 
tons. 



FIELD OF J. G. VANDEPEER. 



Native white, second year 
do 



.do 
.do 
-do 



Native red, flrst year 

do ' 

Native white, second year . 

Native red, fir.st year 

Native white, second j'ear . 

do 

do 



16.8 


13.9 


3.1 


82.7 


17.9 


15. 


2.9 


83.2 


15. 6 


13.5 


2.1 


80.5 


17.8 


15. I 


2.7 


84 4 


1.5.2 


12.5 


2.7 


82.2 


14.3 


12. 


2.3 


83.9 


14.2 


12. 


2.2 


84. 


17.2 


14.3 


2.9 


83.1 


14.2 


12. 


2.2 


84.5 


18. 


10.1 


2.4 


87.5 


17. 


14. 


3.1 


82.3 


16.3 


14. 


2.3 


85.9 



Planted 20 acres ; had 360 
•tons ; yield per acre, 18 
tons. 



FIELD OP FRANK MITNTAR. 



Native white, second year 

do ..' 

Native red, flrst year 

do ; 

do 



10.2 


13.9 


2.3 


85. 


1,5. (> 


13. 


2.6 


83.3 


10.8 


14. 


2.8 


83.3 


16.9 


14.2 


2.7 


84. 


15.2 


12.0 


2.0 


80.7 



Planted 12 acres; had 246 
tons; yield per acre, 20.5 
tons. 



FIELD OP M. BAIN. 



Native red, first year 

Native wliite, second year. 
Native red, first year 

do : 

do 

do 

Native white, second year. 

Native red, first year 

do.... 

do 

do 



17.3 


14.5 


2.8 


83. 


18.4 


15.8 


2.0 


85.9 


1.5.2 


12. 


3.2 


78.9 


16.2 


14. 


2.2 


86.4 


16.8 


14.7 


2.1 


80.3 


10.9 


14.7 


2.2 


86. 


16.9 


U.2 


2.7 


83.7 


15. 


12.4 


2.6 


82. 


17.2 


14.5 


2.7 


84.3 


17.2 


15. 


2.2 


87.2 


16.7 


14.5 


2.2 


86.8 



Planted 18 acres; h. ad 414 
tons ; yield per acre, 23 
tons. 



FIELD OF A. GEORGE. 



Native wliite, second year. 

Native red, first vear 

do .■■ 

do 

Native white, second year. 

do : 



15.2 


12 


3.2 


79. 


14.6 


12.1 


2.5 


82.8 


14.5 


11.5 


3. 


79.3 


14.6 


12. 


2.9 


82.1 


16.1 


14. 


2.1 


86.9 


16.7 


13.1 


3.6 


78.4 



Planted 10 acres ; liad 153 8 
tons ; yield per acre, 15.3 
tons. 



lOG 



FIELD OF A. 1>. MACHADE. 



Date. 


Kiud of seed used. 


m 
"a 

o 
r- 


i 

a 


2 

® 


6 = 


■ f 
IteuiHrkH. 


1884. 
Oct. 24 
28 
Nov. 1 


Native white, second year 

do 

do 

do 


P.ct. 
16. 3 

17.4 

]7.4 

lfi.2 

U. 

14.0 


F.ci. 

YA.l 

14.7 

15. ;{ 

U. 

ll.fi 

12.5 


P.ct. 

2.6 
2.7 
1.9 
2.2 
2.4 
2.1 


84.6 
84.6 
89. e 
86.4 
82.5 
S.-.G 


Planted 8 aKiwt.; had 152 
tons ; yield i»«r acre, 19 
tons. 


10 


,.do 




in 


do 





FIELD OF FRANK GEOIIGE. 



Oct. 

Nov. 



Imported white Imperial 

do 

do 

.... do 

.... do 



IS..'! 


15.5 


2.8 


84.7 


16.8 


13. 


3.8 


77.3 


10.2 


12.9 


3.3 


79.0 


li). 9 


13. 


2.9 


81.6 


15.5 


13. 


2. 5 


8a. 8 



Pl:inted 10 acres; had 17.5 
ton.i ; yield pwi acr«, 17.5 
tons. 



FIELD OF A. GASPER. 



Imported white Inii)ciial 

do 

do 



Oct. 


21 




28 


Nov 


10 




14 




Planted 7 acres ; had 105 
tons ; yield per acre, 15 
tons. 



FIELD OF JAMES FIRERA. 



Oct. 24 



Nov. 



Imported while from Fred. Kuauer 

Germany. 
.... do 



-do 
.do 
.do 
.do 
.do 



15.3 



1.5.2 
16.4 
15.0 
16. 5 
14.2 
13.7 



12.5 


3 


11.5 


2.7 


12.8 


3 


12.3 


2.1 


13.3 


3.2 


10.2 


4 


9.1 


4.8 



(S 

80. 1 
80.0 
91.8 
66.4 



■PLuited 5 ac IV.S ; had 130 
Ions; yielil per acre. 26 
tons. 



FIELD OF FRANK ]'. ROSE. 



Oct. 


24 




24 




25 




30 


Nov 


15 




10 




19 




24 



Native, rod, first year. 

Imported, wliite 

do 

Native, lid, fir.st \ oar . 

do '. 

do 

do 

do 











19.2 


17 , 


2.2 


88.5 


16 


13.6 


2.4 


85 


17.3 


13.2 


3.5 


78 


10.5 


13.8 


2.7 


83.6 


17. <i 


1.5. 3 


2.3 


80.0 


17.3 


15 


2.3 


86.6 


10.5 


13.8 


2.7 


83.6 


i 16.3 


13 


3.3 


79.8 



Planted 20 acre.s ; M.-id 474 
Ions; yield per aere, 23.7 



197 



TABLES (W WORK AT FACTORY FOR EACIF WHKK FR(^M SEPTEMBER 1« 

TO NOVEMBER 11. 

Mr. £. F. Dyer also kindly furnished me with the following data 
illustrating- the workings of the factory in detail for nine consecutive 
weeks. 

These tables contain a large amount of most i)ractical information as 
well as valuable scientific data. 

EXPLANATION OF TABLES. 

The analyses were made daily, and these are given as well as the 
mean for the week. The column lieaded " Diffusions " gives the number 
of diffusion cells filled each day. The degree Brix represents the per' 
cent, total solids in the juice. The polarization gives the percentage of 
sucrose in the juice. This subtracted from the total solids gives the 
difference or solids not sucrose. 

The percentage of sucrose divided by the percentage of total solids 
gives tke " quotient" or co-efficient of purity. 

The columns under "Filtration" show the density and alkalinity of 
the juice and semi-sirup as they come from the filter presses. 

Thie loss of sugar in the pulps and waste waters is also given. 

The percentage of lime carbonate in the animal charcoal when it is 
taken oat for washing and reburning is also given. Last of all are the 
analyses of the melada as it comes from the strike pan on its way to 
the centrifugal. Tke summary gives the tons of beets worked per week 
and the yield of pure granulated sugar in percentages of the beets 
worked. 



198 



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202 



ANALYSIS OF CALIFORNIA BEETS MADE BY THE BUREAU OF CHEM- 
ISTRY AT WASHINGTON. 

In order to render the results of the analyses made by Mr. E. H. Dyer 
more emphatic, I selected ten samples of beets, some from wuj^ons as 
they were unloading, and some from the large pile of beets on hand, 
and sent them to Washington for ex9,mination. 

The results of the analyses of these beets are given in the following 
table : 

Analyses of California beets. 



Variotv. 



Irapei ial Rose 

Ituperial White 

Imi)eiial or White Silcsian. 

White Silcsian 

Imperial 

Improved Imperial Ri'd . . . 

White Imperial 

Imperial Rose 

White Imperial 

White Imperial 



Means . 



4,237 
4,350 
4, 565 
3, 555 

2, 902 
3,490 
3,285 
3,585 
3,253 

3, 530 



3, 675 



51.80 
65.61 
59,08 
58.41 
64.13 
65.07 
62.34 
66.63 
62.68 
58. 06 



61.38 



1.071 
1.068 
1.070 
1.074 
1.063 
1.0G9 
1.075 
1.063 
1. 062 
1.067 



In juice. 



.190 
.084 
.082 
. 057 
.069 
.061 
.129 
.075 
.109 
.050 



14.46 
13.59 
14.69 
15.85 
14. 92 
13. .59 
15.19 
13.65 
12. 71 
15.19 



17.23 
16.53 
17. 01 
17.92 
15.39 
16.77 
18.14 
15.38 
1.5. 10 
16.30 



14.38 16.58 



17.41 
16.23 
17.13 
18.29 
17.40 
17.60 
18.40 
15.62 
15. 29 
18.58 



17.20 



1.136 
.930 

1.134 
.822 
.844 
.956 

1.009 

1. 233 
.928 
.950 



.994 



83.9 
83.2 
86.4 
88.5 
96.9 
81.0 
83.7 
88.7 
83.8 
93.2 



86.9 



88.1 

83.7 
85.8 
86.7 
85.7 
77.2 
82.6 
87.3 
8.3.1 
82.1 



83.7 



Remarks. — No. 1, Imperial Rose; in sheds from October 15 to November 20. No. 2, Imperial White; 
native seed, two years; w.ajjou. No. 3, Imperial or White Silesian; in sheds from October 15. No. 4, 
Wliite Silesiau ; native seed, two years ; wagon. No. 5, Imiierial ; native seed, one year. No. 6, Im- 
proved Imperial Red ; native seed, one year ; wagon. No. 7, White Imperial ; native .seed, two years ; 
wagon. No. 8. Imperial Rose : native seed, one year; wagon. No. 9, White Imperial ; native seed, 
two years ; wagon. No. 10, White Imperial ; wagon. 

REMARKS ON PRECEDING TABLES. 

The richness of the beets worked during the nine weeks is fully equal 
to the average European standard. 

Thirteen per cent, of sucrose indicates a kind of beet that can be sue. 
cessfully manufactured. 

The yield of pure granulated sugar, designated as " lirst product," is 
for the nine weeks nearly 9.5 per cent., or 190 pounds of sugar per ton 
of beets. This large yield is obtained by remelting the second sugars 
and working the solution with the fresh juices. This method gives a 
maximum of " first product," no second product at all, and scarcely any 
in sugar of " thirds," or molasses. Indeed the quantity of molasses 
made by the Alvarado factory is quite insignificant. 

Placing the yield in beets per acre at 15 tons, the lowest average, it 
is found that the total yield of sugar per acre is 190 x 15=2,850 pounds. 
Tiie actual yield, however, in all except a few poorly cultivated fields, 
has been nearly 4,000 pounds, or 2 tons per acre. 

Later in the season, i. e., during late winter and early spring, the 
content of sucrose in the beets will slowly decrease, and by May 1 it is 



203 

expected tbat it will be so low that tlie further mauufacture of sugar 
will uot be protitable. But even by that time the company Avill have 
still several thousand tons of beets on hand, on which it uow seems 
probable they vvill suffer financial loss. 

This excess of beets came about in this way : In former seasoned the 
difficulty has been to get the farmers interested in beet raising to grow 
enough to secure a liberal sui)ply. The company, therefore, had urged 
farmers to plant, and agreed to take all the beets offered at a stipu- 
lated price. 

During the campaign of 1883-'84 the farmers clearly saw that beet- 
raising was far more i)rofltable than the culture of wheat or any of the 
usual crops. They therefore gave much more land and labor to beet- 
culture for the campaign of 18S4-'85 than they had ever done before. 
The result has already been stated. 

In a letter dated January 31, 1885, Mr. Dyer says : 

Our total receipts of beets this campaign were 20,358 tons ('2,000 lbs.). The total 
anionnt of refined sugar manufactured and sold this campaign to date is 1,819,266 
pounds. 

Under date of March 9, 1885, he writes : 

We have beets to last through April. They keep well, and still show a co-efficient 
of purity of over 75. 

If the yield continues, as expected, through April, the total output of 
refined sugar will exceed 3,000,000 pounds. 

The study of the preceding tables is a most encouraging one for the 
farmers. These soils are easily cultivated. In no case was any fer- 
tilizer employed, and yet the yield and quality of the roots are fully up 
to the standard of the forced and expensive cultivation of Germany. 

Although the price of labor in California is so much greater than in 
Germany, I doubt very much whether the cost of the beets per ton is 
greater. The largest item of expense to the beet farmer in these valleys 
of the coast range is rent. As much as $20 per acre is paid annually 
for beet lands. 

Lands of equal fertility and adaptation for beets farther from San 
Francisco could doubtless be obtained on better terms. 

YIELD PER ACRE. 

The large differences in yield per acre shown in the preceding tables 
are not so much due to variation in the fertility of the soil as to meth- 
ods of cultivation. 

The experience of six years has shown that the average yield of beets 
l^er acre has steadily increased, and this increase has been due to im- 
proved agriculture alone. 

At first the farmers (the company does not grow beets) were largely 
ignorant of the correct method of beet culture, and as this ignorance 
disappears the results are seen in an increase of the crops. 



204 

The factory at Alameda has lately been reoi-f^anized and snpplied 
witli new maeliinery. It is now known as the Alameda Sugar Com- 
j)any, and its operations during the past season are given in a letter 
from the president of the company i)ublished in another place. 

f From the Rural Californiaii, October, 1889. ] 

SUGAR-nKET CULTURE IX SOUTIIERX CALIFORNIA. — THE NADEAU EXPERIMENT. — THE 
CIUNO AND SANTA ANA UEETS. — CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. — VILMORIN ON THE SUGAR 
15EET. — ARE WE TO HAVE SUGAR FACTORIES? 

" The culture of the sugar beet in southern California has been in fits 
and starts, rather than a steady undertaking like the growing of other 
crops. That the beet will do well in our soil and climate has long since 
been demonstrated, and its sugar-bearing qualities being above those 
ot the European growth, has always made its extensive propagation de- 
sirable, and a very interesting subject from a commercial point of view. 
The principal objection to its extensive cultivation has been the want 
of a market to enable the grower to dispose of his product at a remu- 
nerative price. This can only be created by the investment of capital in 
buildings and machinery to convert the raw material into merchantable 
sugar. Owing to this difficulty our farmers have not taken the active 
nterest in the sugar beet that they undoubtedly would if they had the 
assurance of a good market. On the other hand, capital has also been 
shy in seeking investments in sugar factories, not knowing for a cer- 
tainty that a sufficient quantity of beets would be grown in convenient 
proximity to the factory, or within easy access by rail, to warrant the 
construction of immense buildings and machinery for this purpose. 
The experiments that have been made are for the most part very satis- 
factory, and clearly show that by proper cultivation, and planting only 
the best varieties, our soil and climate will yield a beet giving a large 
per cent, of saccharine matter. When once demonstrated that a large 
area of our land is adapted to the sugar beet, and our farmers will take 
a live interest in its culture, capital will be found ready to invest in the 
necessary buildings and machinery for purposes of refining. 

" In this connection it will be of interest to refer to the experience of 
the late Mr.Nadeau. In 1880 he idanted about 700 acres to sugar beets, 
with the intention, if we recollect correctly, of erecting a factory of his 
own to convert them into sugar. Be this as it may, he did raise an im- 
mense quantity, which on analysis demonstrated that in sugar-produc- 
ing qualities they were up to if not above the standard of beets grown 
in Germany and France. The following corresi)ondence gives the re- 
sults of two analyses, one by Professor Hilgard, of the State University, 
and the other by Mr. Kulburg, chemist of the Standard Sugar Company, 
Alvarado : 

Alvarado, Cal., Novemher 1, 1886. 

Dear Sir : Tbo 20tli day of September we received about 50 tous of dried beets from 
Mr. R. Nadean, of Los Auj^eles, to be inauufactiired into sugar. As we were running 
on our own beets at the time we could not stop to work the whole 50 tons, but manu- 



205 

factured about 8 tons into a fair quality of sugar, sufficieut to thoroughly test the 
feasibility of makiug sugar from suu-dried beets. 

Mr. Nadeau sent us at the time some green beets. By polarization they gave about 
the same result as the dried beets. We made two polarizations witii the following 
results, both taken from two ditfereut fields: 



Sacchrometer 19.0 

Polariscope 11.9 



Ditference 7. 1 

Quotient 62.62 



Sacchrometer 20. 

Polariscope 12. 8 



Difference 7. 2 

Quotient 64,0 



These beets were worked and the i>olarizat!Ous were made by Mr. Wm. Kulburg, 
who has charge of the technical department of our sugar works, and who has had 
experience in working dried beets in Europe. 

* * * We have procured from Mr. Nadeau samples of his fresh beets, as well as 
those dried by him, and take the liberty to forward the same to you to enable you to 
make a further test from reliable samples. The samples of beets are somewhat wilted 
and dried in consequence of having been so long in reaching this place, consequently 
will polarize more than if taken fresh from the ground. I give the result of Mr. Kul- 
burg's polarization, carefully uiade by him, October 30, 1880 : 



Saccharine 16.5 

Polariscope 11.5 



Difference 5.2 

Quotient 68. 



Saccharine 18.5 

Polariscope i:i, 6 



Difference 4. 9 

Quotient 73.50 



Saccharine 17.0 

Polariscope 13.2 



Difference 5.8 

Quotient 65.6 



Hoping you will favor us with an early reply, -\ve remain, 
Respectfully yours, 

Standard Sugar Manufacturing Company, 
By E. H. Dyer, 

General Superintendent. 
E. W. HiLGARD, 

Professor of Agriculture, State University, Berkeley. 

University of California, College of Agriculture, 

Berkeley, November 6, 1880. 

Dear Sir: Yours of the 1st inst., with packages of fresh and dried beets, duly 
received. 

The dried beets are now in process of analysis. The fresh beets were polarized im- 
mediately after receipt. The results agree substantially with those obtained by Mr. 
Kulburg, viz. : 

Saccharine 17. 1 1 Saccharine 17.2 

Polarization 12. 8 Polarization 12.3 

Purity co-efficient 74. 9 i Purity co-efficient 71.5 

Except in a higher purity co-efiicieut as an average, but that can easily happen. 
Except as to the same point, your polarization of beets taken from two fields asgiven 
on page 2 of your letter, also agrees ; that is, all show a sugar percentage above 12, 
averaging about 42.5 in the juice. Now, since the juice constitutes about 95 per cent, 
of the fresh beet, this would correspond to a little less than 12 per cent, of sugar in 
the green beet ; and this, at the rate of four to one, accepted by you, would make up 
about 48 per cent, in the absolutely free beets, or 43.2 in those containing 10 per cent, 
of moisture. A determination of the sugar in a sample of dried beets furnished me by 
Mr. Nadeau, gives 42.1 per cent, of sv.gar, corroborating, as nearly as possible, the 
polarizations made and the assumptions of the proportion of four of fresh beets to one 
of dry. I am at a loss to understand the statement apparently made on page 1 of 
your letter that the polarization on page 2 agrees with the assumption of 20 per cent. 
of sugar iu the dried beets at the rate of four to one. Ou its face it gives it fully 



20G 

double, or over 40 per cent. Please revise aud explain your position on this point. 
I remark that the dried sample sent by you is much more moist and to the taste much 
less sweet than the samples furnished by Mr. Nadeau. I am, of course, unable to 
determine which samples represents the fifty tons moat correctly. 
Very respectfully, 

E. W. HiLGARD. 

E. H. Dyer, Esq., 

SHperintendcnt Standard Sugar Manufacturing Company, Alvarado. 

" The facts are substantially as follows : Mr. R. Nadeau had about 700 
acres of sugar-beets grown. The samples of green beets grown here 
upou comparison with the standard sugar-beet of Germany, show that 
those grown in this county are fully up to the standard. The exhibit 
of beets made by this gentleman at the horticultural fair in October 
was exceedingly tine, and from the judgment of non-professionals they 
were considered first-class for sugar-making purposes. 

" There were several other letters passed between Professor Hilgard 
and the Standard Sugar Company, the tenor of which, on the part of 
the former, seemed to intimate that the Nadeau beets had not been 
fairly dealt with by the latter. Unsatisfactory, in so far as pertained 
to the manufacture of sugar, as this initial experiment proved to be, it 
clearly showed that with the crude appliances used by the Standard 
Sugar Company, according to Mr. Dyer, only 12 per cent, of sugar was 
obtained from these beets. The late improvements in machinery make 
it not improbable to increase the per cent, of sugar from these same 
beets to 17 and 18 i)er cent., and possibly still more. 

"Owing to other investments and business caresthe building of a sugar- 
beet factory was abandoned, Mr. Nadeau sun-dried his beets and fed 
them to his stock. This has been the largest experimental effort that 
has ever been made in Southern California to grow sugar-beets, and 
proved that in our soil and climate it luxuriates as nowhere else. These 
beets were grown within a few miles south of Los Angeles, on a sandy 
loam soil. 

" From that' time to the present the cultivation of this crop has more 
or less occupied the attention of our farmers and business men, but no 
systematic effort has been made to prove the adaptability of large areas 
of our lands to the cultivation of the sugar-beet as an article of com- 
merce. 

" Recently, however, sugar-beet cultivation has again been agitated 
owing to the fact that it is reported that the corporation of which the 
Spreckles are the leading spirits is contemplating building a .series of 
sugar-beet fai^tories in various portions of the State, and asking farmers 
to experiment growing beets in their respective localities. As a pre- 
requisite for the erection of a factory in any locality, Mr. Clans Spreckles 
writes to the State Board of Agriculture : 

Before erecting a factory anywhere I must be guarantied that at least two thousand 
five hundred acres will be planted in beets each year for a doliuite number of years. 
I must also be assured of suiru'icnt sni)plies of wood, water, and lime in the neigh- 
borhood and good transportation facilities. 



207 

" The Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce sought to stimulate the in- 
terest in sugar-beets, and distributed some fifty packages of seed 
among the farmers of this county, hoping, by excellent returns to in- 
duce a sugar factory to locate here. Somehow, the experiment did not 
"pan." The recipients of seed paid very little attention to properly seed- 
ing and cultivating, and the result on the whole was very unsatis- 
factory. The few samples submitted to the chamber for analysis in 
July did not quite reach the standard, though it is conceded that under 
proper cultivation much better results could have been obtained. The 
best beets submitted were grown in the Cahuenga Pass, giving a very 
encouraging percentage of saccharine matter. Farmers in this favored 
locality are confident that it will grow a fine quality of beet, and are 
going to keep on experimenting. 

" The results obtained from plantings made in last February and March 
on the Chino ranch, San Bernardino County, are more encouraging. 
The following, giving the particulars of the analysis of beets grown ou 
the Chino ranch is taken from the Chino Champion : 

Mr. J. G. Oxnard, of the American Sugar Refinery in San Francisco, spent part of 
Tuesday on the Chino ranch. In company with Mr. D. McCarty,}he inspected several 
patclies of sugar-beets and made tests of a few samples with satisfactory results. 
Among the tests made was one from J. E. Bettler's third planting of French seed on 
April 23, which gave 15 per cent, cane sugar and 83*^ purity. By the way, the re- 
sults thus far obtained are favorable to the French rather than to the German. Mr. 
Oxnard inspected beets grown by Messrs. Lawrence, Karcher, Bettler, Mrs. Rice, and 
others. In the case of the Lawrence beets the samples were taken from the outside 
and inside rows, which was not quite just, as it is well known that outside rows run 
low in sugar, and yet the result was 14 percent, cane sugar, 

Mr. Oxnard did not hesitate to say that he had never .seen better beets, that he was 
well pleased with general shape and cork-screw form of growth, and also of the 
quality. 

This much can now be stated with absolute certainty : The Chino damp and dry 
lauds will grow sugar-beets, in fact have grown them, to the satisfaction of expert 
manufacturers ; that in several cases the land upon which the experiments have been 
made has been cultivated but one year and none of it more than two, and experience 
proves that the first year land is cultivated the best results are rarely obtained. In 
some instances where the i)er cent, of sugar and purity are above the standard the 
seed Avas planted and the beets left to grow their own way except that the weeds 
were kept down, and in but few cases were they given the care required to insure the 
best quality of beet. To sum up there is not a single element lackiBg here for a suc- 
cessful beet-sugar manufactory. 

" Tests made by different parties and at different times varied in some 
particulars. The sanguine report that some of the product goes as high 
as 20 per cent, of sugar, but it is safe to say that the average will be 
about 17 per cent. Though, according the The Champion, " the trusted 
chemist," to quote its own words, " of the Messrs. Spreckles has analyzed 
Chino beets and reports that they contained 19.33 crystallizable sugar 
with a CO efficient of 86.5 purity, — both far above the average in the 
most favored beet districts of Europe or America. Beet seed planted 
on the Chino dry land in May in but a single row and other unfavorable 



208 

couditioiis produced beets that gave 14 per cent, of cane sugar." The 
beets will go about 18 tons to the acre ou Chiuo lauds under favorable 
conditions, valued at $5.04 per ton (which was the average price at 
Watsonville for last year) the crop will prove very profitable, and 
greatly enhance the value of the land. Mr. Gird, the owner of the 
Chiuo ranch, is deeply interested in the subject, and other capitalists, 
notably the Oxnard Brothers and the Spreckles, are interested in the 
subject with a view to establishing a factory at this point. Indeed, it 
is said that the forimn' have an oj)tion to put up the works, and iuves- 
tigations are now going ou. The factory, if built, will give employment 
to a large number of hands, and use large quantities of beets during 
the beet season, necessitating an area of about 3,000 acres planted to 
sugar-beets. 

" Our enterprising neighbors at Santa Ana have also been trying their 
hand. While there has been no attempt at growing sugar-beets ou an 
extensive scale, the farmers of this favored region seem to be alive to 
the importance of this new industry, and they are ably seconded by the 
enterprising business men of Santa Ana. The board of trade has taken 
hold of the matter, and we look for substautivil encouragement from this 
quarter. The analysis of beets sent some time ago to the sugar factory 
at Watsonville is as follows: 



Pet Green wall! 
G.M. Boyle-.. . 
D. G. McClay . . 
John HasshcitK' 
D. Edsou Sinillj 
J. D. Colbiun . 
James H. Jiett 
A. Melcliert . . . 
F. A. Marks... 

Do 

A. Bacon 

O. W. Bill 

Hill 



No. of 
beets in 
sample. 



Averasie 
weightiu 
ounces. 



m 

241 

54 

21J 

13g 

364 

23S 

m 

30* 

54i 

8| 

42J 

3U| 



Total 
solids. 



17.40 
20.50 
16.00 
13.20 
19.60 
12.50 
16.45 
19.00 
12.60 
12.90 
16.10 
15. 50 
1G.25 



Polariza- 
tion. 



12.75 

17.01 

8.89 

8.i?f) 

14.90 

7. 22 

lo'. 77 

15. 15 

8.30 

7.75 

11.80 

10. 5S^ 

12.06 



Not 
sugar. 



4.65 
3.49 
7.11 
4.40 
4.50 
5.28 
5.68 
4.85 
4.50 
5.15 
4.29 
5.02 
4. 1!) 



Co-effi- 
cient of 
purity. 



73.2 
82.9 
.55.6 
66.6 
76 8 
57.0 
6.'). 4 
74.5 
66.0 
60.0 
73.3 
68.3 
74.2 



"The above demonstrates thatthe Santa Ana Valley is adapted to this 
plant. Though the analysis was below that of the Chiuo beet, yet it was 
very encouraging, and warrants future development. The business in- 
terests of the valley are using every legitimate means to foster and en- 
courage beet cultivation. 

"Since the foregoing there has been another analysis made showing a 
higher per cent, of sacchariue matter that is very encouragiug. 

" Experiments have also been made in other portions of Southern Cali- 
fornia, all tending to show that the beet can be grown here and that it 
finds a congenial home in our climate." 



209 

EXPERIMENTS AT WATSONVILLE. 

The Western Beet Sugar Factory at Watson ville has been in operation 
two years and apparently with favorable results. The officers of the 
company kindly furnished the Department with data respecting the 
season of 18S8-'89, an abstract of which follows. A request from ns 
for similar data for the season of 1889-'90 has not been complied with. 

Recapitulation of the ivorkings of the IVestern Beet Sugar Compaiiy\s factory at Watson- 
rille, Santa Cruz County, Cat., for the campaign ending Decemhcr 19, 1888. 

Sugar, freight from Watsonville to San Francisco .f2, OoG. 55 

Coal total cost.. 17,207.00 

Coke do 1,658.93 

Fuel oil do 11,:]5G.02 

Wood do 990.50 

Lime rock do 1,780.30 

Sugar hags do 1, 740. 34 

Soda - do 12.39 

Tallow do 57. 21 

Expense, labor, etc 21,091.27 

(Beets) incidentals 2, .575. 82 

Cost of beets 71,055,89 



132, 522. 22 



Which is the cost of manufacturing 1,G40 tons sugar delivered free on 
board in SaH Francisco. 
We have received for 3,280,000 pounds sugar 1G2, 454. 70 



Making cost of sugar $80.80 per ton of 2,000 pounds. 

Profit '. 29.932.48 



Bsets consumed tons.. 14,077 

Sugar produced do 1, C40 

Men employed 135 

Time of run days.. 61 

Beets, average. polarization per cent.. 14. 60 

Beets, average sugar recovered do 11. 65 

Sugar, average polarization do 95. 40 

Sugar, average price per pound . . 5. 64 cents 

Beets, average price per ton . . $5. 04 

Morimfacturing work at Alvarado. 

No report has been received of the operations of the factory at Alva- 
rado during the past season, and therefore I am not able to say whether 
or not the work was successfully conducted. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS AT THE DEPARTMENT. 

Samples of beets were sent from various localities to the Department 
for analysis during the autumn of 1 889. These beets were grown usually 
by persons who had no knowledge of the proper methods of agriculture 
25474— Bull. 27 14 



210 

as applied to the prodnctiou of a beet rich in sugar, and hence it is not 
at all remarkable that many of them show a low content of sucrose. It 
must further be considered that the seeds were not in all cases of guar- 
antied purity, and this would naturally lead to the production of many 
beets of low sugar content. On the contrary, the exceptionally high 
percentage of sucrose found in some samples shows very conclusively 
that there arc many parts of this country where sugar beets of the 
highest grade can be produced. In the case of No. 65G2 there is a 
phenomenally high percentage of sucrose, which probably was due to 
some adventitious circumstances with which we were not made ac- 
quainted. The table of analyses gives the percentage of juice expressed, 
the percentage of solids deteriiiined by actual drying, the percentage 
of sucrose in the juice, and the purity co-elhcient. The samples are 
described as follows: 



No. 



From — 



Variety. 



G52.3 

6524 

Gr)25 

6527 

6->28 

6529 

6530 

6531 

6.5S2 

65:!3 

6534 

6535 

G.536 

6552 

6553 

6554 

6555 

6556 

6557 

6558 

6559 

65G0 

65G1 

6562 

65Gi 

65G4 

6505 

656G 

65G7 

6568 

6569 

6570 

6571 

6572 

6610 

6011 

6612 

6615 

6616 

6017 

C620 

6022 

0610 

GOIJ 



Ira Foril, Hastiugs, Nubr 

do 

do 

Gustav Ouker, Cliapin, 111 

do 

do 

Frauk Uuriihani, Chapiii, 111 

Ira Ford, IIastiu<;3, Nobr 

do 

The Empire Coal Compauy, Gilcbri.st, 111 

Rollin Orciitt, 11 arinouy, Nebr 

1). Wi'iulhu.sor, I'ender, Ne.br 

A. S. Dailiiis, Alliance, Nebr 

Ira Ford, Ilastings, Nebr 

do 

.do 

W. C. Uuderus, Sturj;is, S. Dak 



.do 
.do 



Jobu Jcnkius, Liucolu, Nebr. 
do 



do . 
-do . 
-do . 
.do . 
.do 
-do , 
-do 
-do 
-do , 
.do 
.do 
-do 
.do 
.do 
.do 



Otto Horbich, Detroit, Mich 

do 

do . 

John Jenkins, Lincoln, Nebr 

K. E. Floniins, Wlieatlatid, N. Dak . 
K. U. Jolinson, IJradv Island, Xobr. 
W. A. AndLT.'ioii, Ord, .Vi'br 



Vilinorin. 

Not ffiveu. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Lauc'.s Imperial. 
Not given. 
Viluiorin. 

Do. 
Lane's Imperial. 

Do. 

Do. 
Vilmorin. 
Alkali, white. 
Sturgis, white. 
Alkali, red. 
B;iir Butte, white. 
Lane's Imperial. 
Vilmoriu. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Not given. 
Vilmorin. 

Do. 
Lauc's Imijerial. 

Do. 
Vilmorin. 

Do. 
Lane's Imperial. 
Improved Imperial. 
Not given. 

Do. 

Do. 
Lane's Imperial. 
Not given. 
White Vilmoriu. 
French white sugar boets. 



211 



Serial number. 


Juice, ex- 
piessed. 


Total 
solids in 
thejuico. 


Sucrose 
in tho 
juice. 


Purity. 


C523 


Percent. 
6?. 52 
62. 65 
62. 02 
44.66 
52. 94 
57.79 
59.54 
51.50 
61.83 
47.14 
44.65 
47.55 
51.83 
41.71 
46.95 
52. 85 
47.95 
5.5. 11 
44. 11 
48.44 
48. 23 
60. 56 
38.31 
39.04 
45. 39 
59.44 
57.74 
54.63 


Per cent. 

9.55 
13. 02 
13.02 
12.17 
14.02 

7.02 
11.32 
14.02 
13.77 
16.67 
36.02 
14.37 
17.60 

8.90 
17,07 
14.20 
16.20 
14.87 
19.37 
23.25 
14.00 
15.57 
18. 2<i 
28.80 
18,35 
12.82 
13.07 
10.35 
16,20 
14.52 

6.92 
15.37 
14. 65 
20.27 
17.48 
10.37 
17.30 
15.52 
18. 05 
17.97 
1.V20 
1.5. 27 
23. 03 
22. 05 


Per cent. 

5. 70 

9.10 

9.10 

8.40 

9.50 

4 05 

7.10 

9.25 

9.75 

13.40 

12.50 

9.00 

12.30 

6.00 

12. 50 
10.20 
10.75 

8.50 

13. 55 
17. 00 

9,35 
10.45 
13,50 
22,30 
13. 50 
10.10 

9.60 

6.50 
13. .50 
30.65 

3, 55 
11.40 
10.40 
17.05 
32.70 

5.85 
12.90 
11.70 
14.15 
12.90 
12.00 

9, 85 
10.40 
16.45 


50.69 


G524 


69.89 


6525 


74.50 


6,527 


69.02 


65>8 


67.76 


6529 

0.530 . 


53.14 
62. 72 


C5,jl 


65. 90 


0532 


70.80 


0533 


80. 38 


6534 


78. 02 


6535 


62,63 


6536 


69.88 


6552 


67.41 


6553 


78. 22 


6554 


71. 80 




60. 35 




57. 16 


6557 


09. 95 




76 40 


6559 


66.78 




67, 11 


6561 . ... 


74.17 




«0.43 


0563 


73,56 




78,77 


6565 


68.85 




02. 99 


6567 


83.33 




48.13 
55. 66 
55.13 
46.89 
46.15 
45.69 
53.80 
45. 95 
55. 65 
54.71 
47.76 
48.81 
43, 78 


74.73 


6509 


51.44 


6570 


74.16 


0.571 


70.98 




84.11 


6610 


72.65 




.56.41 


6612 


74. .56 




75. 38 


0616 J. 


78,38 


6617 

6620 


71.78 
78.94 




64.50 


06 10 






43.87 


74.60 







BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN CANADA.* 

" 111 order to encourage the beet-sugar industry in Canada itbas been 
decided by the directors of the factories at Faruhaiii to ask of the Gov- 
ernment of Quebec a bounty of $1 per ton for all sugar-beets grown 
duringthe year 1890. In order to re-establish the beet-sugar industry at 
this point the pioi)rietors offer the following inducements in the circular 
sent to farmers : The seed for planting the beets will be furnished gratis 
to cultivators ; -$4.50 i)er ton of 2,000 pounds will be paid for beets on 
board cars; the payment will be made on the delivery of each car-load 
of beets as soon as they are weighed; an advance of $10 per arpeut 
will be made in the month of June to cultivators who hav^e at least 3 
arpents in beets; a second advance of $10 per arpent will be made in 
the month of July to all cultivators who, having properly thinned and 
hoed their beets, will have at least 25,000 plants left per arpent. Two 
premiums of $50 and $L00 will bo given for the best 3 arpents of beets." 



*Jourual des Fiibricauts de Sucre, March 19, 1890. 



212 

FACTORIES IN CANADA.* 

" Of the three beet-sugar factories in the Proviuce of Quebec ouly 
one worked this year. For various reasons the profits were not satis- 
factory. The success of this industry is possible, and the manufacture 
of sugar from beets will in time come to be considered the most remun- 
erative of the country. 

"The failures are due to two causes: First, bad management; sec- 
ond, want of working capital. 

"The writer (Mr. Mussy) intends to renew his efibrts, with French 
capita], and rent and work the Farnham factory. It i.^; without doubt 
demonstrated that it is not possible to raise and deliver beets at the 
factory for less than $5 per ton. Each of the factories, Berthier and 
Farnham, has a working capacity of 15,000 tons. The writer suggests 
that American capitalists secure these factories where the farmers are 
already educated in beet-raising, in preference to building new works. 
These factories are located only a few hours from Boston and New York. 

" The writer further states that in the vicinity of these factories many 
farmers are growing sugar-beets for their cattle. The Berthier factory 
worked this year. Fro n an agricultural standpoint the campaign has 
been a great success, beets were purchjised at $4 per ton and farmers 
were willing to contract for almost unlimited areas for next year. Un- 
fortunately only 30 tons of roots have been worked ]ier diem, while the 
capacity is 200 tons, and during the campaign of 1882 there was an 
average of 150 to 170 tons utilized per twenty-four hours." 

THE BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY IN ENGLAND. 

Dr. Schack-Sommert contributes a pai)er setting forth the advan- 
tages which would accrue from the introduction of the beet-sugar in- 
dustry into England Four varieties of beets were grown by him from 
seeds obtained from Dr. iScheibler. The four varieties grown were: 

1. Dippe's Ricliest Sugar-beet. 

2. Dippe's Improved. 

13. Dippe's Improved Red-headed. 

4. Dipxie's Improved Klein Wanzlebben. 

The fertilizer recommended for the beets is 200 to 300 pounds of nit- 
rate of soda and from 400 to 000 pounds of superphosphate per acre. 
It is recommended to plow the soil 11 to 15 inches deep. 

Experiments were made at two localities, one on the farm of Mr. John 
Ennis in Springwood, Ireland, and the other on the farm of Mr. John 
Gibbonsmin Wavertree, near Liverpool. An analysis of beets made on 



*Abstract of a letter to the editor of the Sugar Hoct, from A. Mnssy. From " TIm 
Sugar Cane," February 1, 1890. 

t.Iourualof the Society of Chemical ludustry, February 28, 18D0, 



213 

the 20tli of SopttMiiber at the. two stations, showed at the English sta. 
tion the followiwg percentages of sugar : 15, 15.0, 14.7, 14.2; and at the 
Irish station, 1G.7, 17, 18.2, 10.8. On the 10th of October another set 
of analyses was made at the two stations with the following results : At 
the English station, the percentages were 10.5, 17, 10,7, 16.4, and at the 
Irish station 18.2, 17.5, 17.2, 18.8. 

The apparatus invented by Meyer and Buettner for drying the sliced 
beets is also described and it is claimed that with this apparatus it is 
j)()ssible to dry 225,0(10 kilograms of sliced beets per day at a cost of 8 
cents per 100 ))()ands. In regard to the quantity obtained per acre at 
the English station the yield was 42 tons and 19 cwt. 

BEET SUGAR IN THE NORTHWEST. . 

POINTS FOR CONSIDERATION WITH REGARD TO THE INTRODUCTION 
OF THE SUGAR-BEET AND THE MANUFACTURE OF BEET-SUGAR IN 
THE NORTHWEST AS COMPARED WITH THE BEET-SUGAR PRODUC- 
ING COUNTRIES OF EUROPE, BY J. D. FREDERICKSEN.* 

"1. Climate. — In Europe the northern part of the temperate zone af- 
fords the most favorable conditions for the growth of the sugar-beet 
and the development of a pure juice from which the sugar is easilj^ ex- 
tracted. The northern i)art of Germany, Prussian Saxony, Brunswick, 
and Hanover; Denmark and tlio southern and middle sections of 
Sweden ; Belgium, Holland, the northern departments of France; Bo- 
hemia and a section in the middle of Russia, all produce beets from 
which sugar can profitably be manufactured. Sections with complete 
inland climate seem to produce richer sugar-beets than those with coast 
climate. In northern Germany and certain parts of Russia and Sweden 
the beet is generally richer in sugar than in France, Belgium, Holland, 
or Denmark, the latter countries being more exposed to the sea. In 
England, where the climate is moist and temperate all the year round, 
the beets grow bulky but poor in sugar, and there the beet-sugar in- 
dustry has proved a complete failure. 

"As to Denmark the climate is not so favorable to the development 
of sugar in the beets as it might be. The spring is rather dry, so that 
it is hard to get the plants started, and the fall is so wet that there is 
a danger for the beets to set flesh at the expense of the quality of the 
juice. For the same reason the harvest is difficult. Still the industry 
is flourishing, so that the climate may not be called bad. 



* McMiirtrie, op, cit. pp. 275, et seq. 



214 

"The followiiigc table shows the average temperature and rainfall at 
Copenhagen, in Denmark, and in Minnesota : 



January . . . 
Ft luiiarv - 

M.ucii :... 

Apiil 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . 

October 

November . 
December.. 

Total 



Minnesota. 



Denmark. 



Tempera- 
ture. 



Fah 
15. 
14 

2:(, 

;v 

02 

(18 

74 

70, 

(iO, 

49 

L'8 

18, 



43.62 



Tempera- 
Kain. ture ,44 „„„_.) 



R.I in 



Inches. 

.49 
1.07 
2.24 

.95 
1.C5 
11.67 
1.94 
3.90 
5.76 
3.21 
1.90 

.72 



35.50 



Fahr. 
29.84 
30.92 
33.80 
42. 08 
51.62 
59. 90 
63. 14 
G2.24 
56. 12 
47.84 
38.84 
33.80 



45.84 



Inches. 
1.74 
1.52 
1.50 
1.46 
1.49 
2.12 
2, 30 
2.48 
2.18 
2.17 
2.04 
1.69 



22.75 



"Comparing these figures, it would suggest itself that the excessive 
rainfall in Minnesota in June might favor the developuicnt of the young 
beets, but at the same time make it very troublesome to j)erform the 
work of harrowing and hoeing to keep the land clean from weeds. The 
months of August, September, and October also seem rather moist, 
making it possible that too much inorganic matter may enter the juice at 
the time when the beets get ripe. Still, when falling in heavy showers at 
long intervals, as it probably does in Minnesota, the rain is neither 
likely to influence the beets nor to bother the harvest in the same way 
as when coming down gradually at short intervals. More water will 
evaporate from the soil, and therefore more rain is needed in Minne- 
sota than in Denmark on account of the higher temperature of the for- 
mer. According to another account the fall of rain in Minnesota is as 
follows: 



Winter 

Spring 

Summer , 

Fall 

Annual 



Minne- 
apolis. 



3. 105 

7.900 

10.304 

5.108 



32. 456 



Uulntli. 



2.160 
6. 480 

20. ^50 
8.000 



Breckin- 
lidse. 



37. 550 



4.980 
0. 2.".0 
14. 150 
3.580 



Pembina. 



28. 900 



2.750 
2.450 
7. 250 
0.910 



19. 300 



New Ulm. 



2. 2fi0 
0. 300 
7. 020 
9. 280 

24. 800 



"With such extraordinary differences within the same State it would 
seem likely that some sections, at least, may be favored with the proper 
climate for a successful cultivation of the sugar-beet. The temperature 
of the summer does not seem excessively high, for even far south on 
the continent of Europe the beet is grown successfully, and just in those 
of the above sections where the beets are richest in sugar the summer 
heat is comparatively high. 



215 

"2. Soil. — The proper soil for the sugar-beet is neither too heavy 
(clayish) nor too light (sand), nor containing too much organic matter. 
A well cultivated, rich, and deep soil, that would produce a good crop 
of barley for malt, is well adapted for the sugar-beet. New and rich 
land, that in a crop of cereals would develop the straw at the expense 
of the seed, would make a bulky crop of beets, but they would be poor 
in sugar and rich in non-sugar, detrimental to the extraction of the 
former from the juice. Land of old cultivation, made rich by continued 
plowing and manuring, is better than newly broken land. Therefore, 
without knowing from personal experience, one would imagine the soil 
of Illinois to be better adapted to the sugar-beet than that of Minne- 
sota. The land should be well drained, either by nature or by pipes 
laid deep in the ground, allowing no water to remain on the surface at 
any time. 

" The limits for the physical condition of the soil are, however, very 
wide, for we have grown rich sugar-beets on comparatively heavy and 
on comparatively light soil, the former being made porous by deep 
drainage and intense stirring with steam-plow and cultivator But, 
whether heavy or light, only land in a state of high cultivation could 
produce beets rich in sugar. 

"3. Labor. — One of the worst drawbacks to the successful introduc- 
tion of the sugar beet in the northwest would seem to be the labor ques- 
tion. Even with the advantage of the best implements to stir the land, 
thin and clean the ridges, and gather the crop, the hand-labor needed to 
grow sugar-beets is considerable. Wages being about three times as 
high in the northwest as in Denmark, this would increase the expenses at 
a great rate. Supposing one hand to be needed for 3 acres of land for 
four months, about thirty days' work would be necessary to cultivate 
1 acre. Supposing 1 acre to yield 15 tons of beets or 2,400 pounds 
of sugar (8 per cent.), thirty days' work, at il.50 a day, would make 
$45 an acre, or $3 per ton of beets, or 18| cents per hundre<l-weight of 
sugar, while in Denmark, at 50 cents a day, the labor would only 
amount to one-third of these expenses. And supposing the product 
could bear such expenses, would it be possible to gather a sufficient 
number of hands so as to grow 1,500 acres of beets within the limit for 
the area of one sugar factory ? For it is a deplorable fact that, at the 
present development of the industry, sugar can not be manufactured 
from beets on a small scale, but must be produced in large establish- 
ments, which require the raw material from a large number of acres. 
And, on account of the bulky quality of the beets, they can not bear 
long transportation, and must therefore be grown within a certain com- 
paratively narrow distance from the factory. Again, during the manu- 
facturing season, which only lasts about four or five months, the factory 
would employ a number of hands who, after all of the beets have been 
disposed of, would have to look for employment elsewhere. While at 
the time between the clearing of the beet land and the harvesting of 



216 

the beets the regular harvest of the cerials might give euiployineiit to 
the beet hands, woiihl the forests of Miunesota or other industry dis- 
X)Ose of the hiboring hands during winter and early spring, until the 
beet field again might need them ? Sugar beets should not be attended 
to only when the dther work of the farm is done and there is nothing 
else to do, but should be worked when they need working. Without 
independent labor at the proper time their cultivation always proves a 
failure. So also should the manufacture of sugar begin when the beets 
are ripe and contain most sugar, and it should be continued energetic- 
ally as long as any beets are left, in order to dispose of the whole crop 
before too much sugar is lost, for every day after the beets are ripe they 
grow poorer in sugar. Therefore laboring hands must be at disposal at 
any time when they are wanted, independent of other work that might 
need them. 

" In the factory the high rate of labor in the the Northwest would add 
considerably to the expenses ; while in the beet field where, in Denmark, 
female hands are employed in a great measure, the labor would jDrob- 
ably be three times higher in Minnesota than in the old country, the 
manufacturing labor expenses would, no boubt, be twice as high in 
Minnesota as in Denmark. In the latter country the labor expenses in 
the factory amount to $1.15 per ton of beets, or about .72 cent per 
130und of sugar. 

"4. Other expenses.— Qnite different is the case with regard to other 
expenses than laboring. The cheapness of the land in the Northwest 
as compared with rich land in the old country will, no doubt, do much to- 
wards reducing the expenses of the growing of beets in Miunesota. In 
Denmark the rent for rich land amounts to $7 to $8 au acre. In Germany 
as much as $1G per acre is paid yearly for a rentage lasting ten or 
twenty years. In the Northwest, improved land could probably be had 
for less than half the rent in Denmark. 

" In the factory coal plays a prominent part among the expenses 
other than labor. In Denmark this item amounts to $1.20 per ton of 
beets or .75 cent per pound of sugar — the price for coal being $6 per 
ton. This price being reduced to $2 per ton, the expense for fuel would 
be 40 cents per ton of beets or .25 cent per pound of sugar only. 

" 5. Duty. — In the old country the dut}' paid to the government by 
the manufacturers makes a heavy reduction of the profit realized by 
the production. In Germany the duty is laid on the beets, being raised, 
gradually from 1836, when it was only one fourth silver groschen per 
hundred weight (11 cents per ton) of beets, to the present time, when it 
amounts to 9 silver groschen per 100 pounds ($4 per ton). This is, in 
a great measure, the reason why in Germany the manufacture of beet 
sugar is developed to such admirable perfection as is the case. The 
more sugar that could be gained from the beets, the less the duty drew 
on the profit of the manufacturer, for the duty on 1 ton of beets re- 
mained the same whether 6 or 10 per cent, of sugar were extracted. 



217 

All the efforts of the farmer and the inaiiufactnrer had the aim to pro- 
duce mucli sugar from a certain weight of beets, not to produce much sugar 
from au acre of land. Therefore the quantitative yield of beets was 
neglected, while beets were produced which yielded as much as 10 
per cent, of sugar. 

" In Sweden the same system is adopted. In Belgium and partly in 
Holland the duly is calculated on the basis of the quantity and rich- 
ness of the juice extracted from the beets. In France and in Denmark 
the duty is laid on the sugar produced. For this reason it is in these 
countries the aim of the i)roducer to get the largest yield of sugar from 
an acre, only i)rovided that it can be profitably extracted. Therefore 
the yield of beets is larger, but their contents of sugar less than in 
Germany. In Denmark the duty is equal to that on imported sugar, 
amounting to 2.16 cents per pound of raw sugar (below No. 18 Dutch 
standard), or about $3.45 per ton of beets. The duty in this country 
being about 3.5 cents for average raw sugar, this item would amount to 
$5.G0 per ton of beets in favor of the manufacturer, jjrovided 8 per cent, 
of raw sugar can be extracted (besides the molasses). 

Summing up these items the following figures are arrived at in favor or 
in disfavor of the sugar industry in Minnesota, as compared with Den- 
mark, provided 8 per cent, of sugar is realized in both countries : 





Extraexpenses in Minne- 
sota. 


Savings in Minnesota. 




Per ton of 
beets. 


Per pound of 
sugar. 


Per ton of Per pound of 
beets. sugar. 


Labor in field 


$2.00 
1.15 


$0.0125 
72 




Labor in factory 




Rent 


$0. 23 

.80 

5. CO 


$0. 0014 


Fuel 






.0050 


Duty 






.0350 












3 15 


197 


6.63 .0414 



" Deducting the extra expenses from the savings, we arrive at the 
following real savings in favor of Minnesota : 

Per ton of beets $3.48 

Per pound of sugar 2. 17 

"But the whole calculation depends upon the ([uestion, can beets be 
grown in Minnesota which will yield 8 per cent, of sugar ? The most 
careful study of tables of rainfall and temperature, and of analysis 
of the soil, can not decide the question. The only way is to try. Seed 
of rich sugar beets should be distributed to intelligent farmers through- 
out the Northwest, accompanied by directions how to grow beets. The 
farmers who undertake to carefully make the experiments should be 
requested to return au average sample of the crop, describing the soil 
in which the beets are grown, and the treatment of it; the fruits which 
the laud bore in previous years ; the manure, if any, that was used ; 



218 

the time in which tlie manure and the seed were sown, and at whicli 
the thinninjjont, the harro\vinj;\s and hoein.as, and the harvest were per- 
formed ; the yiehl per acre, etc. The samples slionhl be analyzed, not 
only for sngar (and especially that kind of sngar which would turn the 
polarized light to the right, and which would crystallize), but also for 
organic and inorganic non-sugar. Such material for one year would 
already afibrd valuable suggestions, and, carried on for several years, 
such experiments would justify a decided opinion about the propriety 
of the introduction of the industry. To start a large and expensive 
factory without such foundation would be to run a great risk, and 
to establish small and cheap factories would always prove a failure. 

" As to the plan for establishing sugar factories, several systems pre- 
vail in Europe. One is the co-operative, very much like the system of 
cheese factories and creameries in certain sections of this country. The 
farmers in a section intending to establish a sugar factory form a joint 
stock company, and are bound to deliver to the factory the beet crop 
of a certain number of acres for each share in their possession in 
Brunswick generally 8 acres for each share of $100). 

" For the last ten years the sugar factories have become very expen- 
sive, being profitable only when very large, and when furnished with 
the latest inventions. Therefore, the farmers could not afford to build 
their own factories if it were not for large stock companies which under- 
take to build and furnish factories for the farmers, leaving the greater 
part of the cost at low interest to be paid off gradually, against mort- 
gage in the buildings. This plan does not work well in a country where 
the industry is new, and, though it is no doubt best of all, it can not be 
introduced until the beet sugar industry has proved an nnquestionable 
success, and is known to the people as a safe thing to invest in. 

"Another plan is for a stock company to establish a factory, buying 
the beets from the farmers, and return the refuse (pulp) to be consumed 
on the land, so as not to exhaust the latter. It is, however, not an 
easy task to induce the farmers at once to grow an area with beets large 
enough to furnish a factory with sufficient raw material of good quality 
for a successful starting. It takes time and experience to learn how to 
grow rich sugar-beets ; the best way |^ to learn it is to get direct interest 
in the profit. Therefore such concerns who build factories, intending to 
buy the beets in a section where the industry is not previously known, 
are generally forced to grow a large portion of the beets themselves, by 
establishing some kind of bonanza farms, or by renting suitable land for 
the purpose, returning it to the farmers after the crop has been gathered. 
In fact, this is the only wa^' to secure within reasonable time enough of 
good raw material, until, by and by, the farmers are educated for the task. 

" In Denmark the beet-sugar industry was introduced in 1873, when it 
had been ascertained by experiments during several years that suffi- 
ciently rich sugar-beets could be grown. Two factories were started, 
one by an old concern that previously commanded the whole sugar- re- 
fining business of the country, the other by a new stock company prom- 



219 

iiieiitly made up of landed proprietors. The former company built a 
lar^e factory in a fertile section occupied by intelligent farmers, who, 
it was thought, should furnish the beets. The factory was capable of 
working up 12,500 tons of beets a year. The first year only 2,500 tons 
of poor b^ets were received, and the second year proved but little bet- 
ter. Then the managers were convinced of the necessity of adding 
farming to their business, and bought a farm of 300 acres, to manage 
which an expert was engaged. Another year more land was added to 
the farm, and suitable fields were rented for one year and grown with 
beets by the manufacturers. On these lands rich sugar-beets were 
grown. In the meantime the farmers learned how to grow the beets, 
and the (luantity received at the factory increased yearly, until now 
sufficient raw material is furnished so as to run the factory profitably. 
Large amounts of monej' were lost during the first five years. The busi- 
ness seemed condemned to failure, but the managers succeeded in keep- 
ing it going until the balance turned, and now the factory is flourishing. 

"The other comi)any went at once to work and rented for twenty 
years three large farms, of 2,000 acres of land in all, every acre of 
which was in a state of high cultivation and well drained. This land 
was divided into four fields and sown successively with wheat, beets, 
barley, and clover, so that ever3' fourth year beets were grown on the 
same land. Steam-plows and first-class machinery were introduced. 
The factory was built so as to work up 7,500 to 10,000 tons of beets a 
year. Besides those grown on the 500 acres of the company, more beets 
were grown by the company on land rented yearly and being returned 
to the farmers after use, and as many as possible were bought. In this 
way the company succeeded in gathering G,000 tons of tolerably rich 
beets the very first year, sufficient to make a rather successful start. 
The factory being built at a time when all materials were as expensive 
as ever; the price of sugar falling about 30 percent.; hard competition 
being brought to bear from the sugar refiners ; an excessive duty even 
higher than that on imported sugar* being at once enforced as soon as 
the manufacture was started ; and finally entering the time of universal 
financial depression, commanding insufficient capital, the company 
could, however, not carry the work through, and failed in 1876. Anew 
company took the matter in hand, and carrying on the business on the 
same principle as it was hitherto managed, have succeeded in making 
it pay well. 

" Having passed through extraordinary difficulties, the beet-sugar in- 
dustry in Denmark is now successful. lUit though a handsome profit 
is realized by the manufacturers, it is nothing compared with the indi- 
rect profit which is the result of the improvement of the land where 

* The flnty at once laid on the manufacture of beet sugar in Denmark was a few 
years later acknowledged by the government to be higher than that on imported 
s'jgar, and was reduced accordingly. In no other country in the world has this in- 
dustry snft»>red an immediate imposurc of duty, time being e\^erywhere else allowed 
for the industry to develop and acquire stability. 



220 

boots havo boon grown. The intlnoiico on tlio land of the. deep and 
llioioiigii cnltivation, and tlio use of I'tTtilizors, wliicli go linnd in hand 
witli the growth of the sngar-beet, of the beet itself by ^opening and 
niannring the soil, and of the stable manure which is produced by this 
system, is simi)ly wonderful. All other crops are increased and their 
quality improved. On such land as would previously produce only 
(Common barley, a highly praised malting grain is now raised, which 
brings far better price than the old i)roduct. Those farmers who at 
first looked suspiciously on the new industry are now quite enthusiastic 
in favor of it, and several factories are about to be built this year." 

USE AND TREATMENT OF PULPS. 

PRESERVATIC'N OF DIFFUSION PULPS IN SILOS. 

Instead of feeding the diffusion pulps at once they may be kept in 
silos for future use. A silo suitable for this purpose is described by 
Minangoiu.* In silos made of earth there is aconsiderablelossof ma- 
terial on account of mixture of the earth with the pulp. On the other 
hand, the cost of silos constructed in masonry is verj^ great. The 
pressure of the pulp is so great that such silos must have an unusual 
thickness to withstand it. A cheaper form of silo is therefore indispen- 
sable for farmers' use. 

A silo made of heavy planks appears best suited for preserving the 
pulp. 

The silo described by Minangoin is about 70 feet long and G feet wide. 
The bottom is made of a layer of stone, but without cement. The sur- 
face is slightly raised in the center to permit of the outflow of liquid 
on both sides. A ditch surrounding the silo is disposed in such a man- 
ner as to properly dispose of the drainage water. The boards of the 
silo are supported by oak T)osts 4 inches square, deeply set in the earth, 
and placed at distances of about 5 feet apart. These posts are con- 
nected from side to side by iron rods one-half inch in diameter. 

Between each x)lank in the sides and ends of the silo is left a space? 
1 inch, to facilitate the drainage of the pulps. The planks should have 
a width of about 1 foot. For convenience in filling, as well as for use, it 
is well to divide the silo into parts by running a jiartition from i)Ost to 
post. By leaving out the iron rods until each partition is filled and 
filling the farther part first the charge maybe brought directly into the 
silo from its open end. The silo should be 5 feet high at the sides and 
8 foot in the center, and will then contain over 300 cubic yards of pulp. 
The pulps are preserved perfectly. The pulp gradually acquires a 
remarkable dryness and density, and there is no waste either at sides 
or bottom. It is not necessary to furnish it with a cover. 



*Sucrerio Indioonc, Maroli 25, 181)0, page 282. 



221 



PRESERVATION OF BEET PULP. * 

" On well-orgauized sugar-beet plantations there sbouUl be special 
arrangements for keeping refuse pulp during the winter, a period when 
green fodder (so essential to the health of liv^e.stock) is difficult to pro- 
cure. 

" In previous issues of The Sugar Beet we mentioned experiments 
made from year to year in pulp preservation, and how this refuse may 




Fig. 44. — Vertical sectiou of silo for beet pulp. 

be kept in good condition by a liberal use of salt, etc. The greatest diffi- 
culty to conteud with is the water retained by the pulp; fermentation 
soon ibllows. The organic transformations are not objectionable if 




Fig. 45. — Horizontal section of ailo for beet pulp. 

arrested at the proper moment ; on the contrary, live-stock seems to eat 
with considerable avidity pulp having slightly soured, or of acetic taste. 



Tli(3 Suj-ar Bet;t, Aiij;ii,st, 1868. » 



222 

If the cattle to be fed are munerous, their daily cousumption may be 
equal to the siii)i)ly ; silos uuder such circumstances are unnecessary. 
On the other hand, during the one hundred days representing an ordi- 
nary campaign of beet-sugar factories, the fattening results can not be 
satisf'actoriiy obtained, because the period is too limited. From a gen- 
eral i)oint of view pulp silos may be a source of considerable revenue 
to all interested. 

" At the Ferme de la Briclie (France) may be seen a silo of 4,000 cubic 
meters capacity used for distillery pulp. The refuse is carried from 
mash tubs in cars C, Figs. 44 and 45, in which it is mixed with chopped 
straw, hay, etc. A movable partition P (19.68 by 11.48 feet), having the 
exact dimensions of the silo's cross-section, is mounted on wheels and 
l)laced a short distance from the eud wall. The intervening space is 
filled with closely-packed pulp, thus preventing fermentation, and a 
layer of 10 inches earth covers the top. The partition is moved back- 
ward, and the foregoing operations repeated. It is said that beet pulp, 
under truch conditions, will keep for years ; it is taken from the silo in 
vertical slices." 

DRYING OF THE PULPS FOR PRESERVATION FOR FEEDING PURPOSES. 

In an address made at the agricultural association of the Province 
of Hanover, Mr. Koester described the process of the drying of pulp 
for the purpose of preserving it for cattle food. This new feeding 
, stuff is known by the name of 'dried diffusion pulp,' and is being 
largely discussed in France lately. Very little is known in regard to it 
by the farmers themselves up to the present time. The cost of the dr^'- 
ing plant and the expenses of the process are great and there is much 
doubt whether any profit results from it. Some of the data in regard 
to the matter have been collected by Mr. Koester. He says if he had 
received, during the present year, the M'hole of his pulp in the humid 
state he would have been compelled to transport 57,000 quintals. Of 
this quantity 9,000 would have been consumed during the campaign, 
and 48,000 would have been preserved. If these 48,000 quintals had 
been dried the exi)ense of placing them in silos, and the transportation 
of them from the silos to the feeding-stalls, would have been saved. 
This extra expense is estimated to be from 2.5 to 3 pfennigs i)er quintal, 
or, expressed as a mean of the whole cost, 1,330 marks. The drying of 
48,000 quintals of pulp would have cost 4,320 marks; deducting from 
the above the 1,330 marks for the expense of preserving the wet pulp, 
there would remain a net expense of 3,000 marks for the desiccation. 
It is estimated that the nndried pulp, in keei)ing, lose in all about 
one-third of its nutritive value, which would be equivalent to 16,000 
quintals. If, however, these 16,000 (piintalshad been dried they would 
have yielded 1,880 quintals of dried pulp. It is estinuited that the 
feeding value of 1,880 quintals of dried pulp is equal to 7,500 marks; 



223 

deducting from this sum the net expense of desiccating, viz, 3,000 
marks, there would have resulted a net gain on the whole mass of 
4,500 marks. One factory at Retheu worked uj) nine times as many 
beets as were furnished by Mr. Koester ; they would, therefore, have 
realized 40,000 marks profit by drying all of their pulp. The process 
of drying the pulp employed was that of Buttner and Meyer. The 
dried pulp furnishes a food which is preserved indefinitely without alter- 
ation, provided it is put in a dry place. According to Wolff it contains: 

Per cent. 

Water 11. G 

Asli 7. 1 

Crude j)roteiu (of whicli digestible 4.1 per cent.) G. t> 

Fiber (of -which digestible 16. per cent.) 19. :3 

Nou-nitrogeu matters (of which digestible 45.9 iier cent.) 54. 8 

Fats (of which digestible .6 per ceut. ) G 

It is tlierefore a nutriment especially rich in carbohydrates, but oue 
which should be guj>plemented by some food furnishing the missing- 
qualities; for instance, some food rich in nitrogen. 

It is not necessary to saturate the dried pulp with water before giv- 
ing it to cattle. Animals consume the pulp willingl}" in the dried 
state, and the experiments of Professor Maercker have shown that the 
nutritive effect is at least as good with all kinds of animals as when 
fed the moist pulp. Mr. Koester has had equal success in feeding this 
food to milch cows, to cattle preparing for the market, and to sheep. 
He has even fed it to calves of four months old, and young lambs, who 
take it willingly. It has also been given to horses with success, in the 
proportion of from 5 to 6 pounds for each one. AVe seem, therefore, to 
have iu this dried pulp a nutriment capable of any application, and 
which appears destined not only to play a grand role in the alimenta- 
tion of cattle, but also to render suiierfluous many other kinds of for- 
age, and to give an opportunity to use to a considerable extent such 
materials as cotton-seed and linseed cakes rich in nitrogen matter. Iu 
the case of five beeves which were fattened, they received, beisde straw 
and moist pulp, a mixture of dried pulp, peanut cakes, sesame cakes, 
and cotton seed meal. During four weeks iu which the effect was 
noted, the animals increased at the rate of from 2 to 3 pounds per 
day.* 

FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LEAVES AND DIFFUSED FULP OF 

BEETS, t 

At the general meeting of the Central Agricultural. Society of the 
Duchy of Brunswick, February 25, 1890, Professor Maerker gave an 
address upon certain recent feeding experiments, which were of special 
interest to the sugar interests, as the experiments treated of the values 

*Jourual des Fabricauts de Sucre, April 9, 1890. 
t By Professor Maerker, Halle. 



224 

of beet leaves, also of the pulp, after diffusion, both in tbe moist and 
dry conditions. 

Professor Maerker commenced b\^ stating that the tables of Wolff", 
which allow 3^ pounds of nitrogenous food matter per 2,500 pounds of 
the living weight of the animal, are no longer to be accepted in view of 
existing standards of cattle feeding. It is more advantageous to raise 
the allowance of nitrogenous matters, and gradually, to the relation of 
5 pounds per 2,500 pounds of living weight, ('ontrary to the increasing 
of the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters, as advised by the Woiff' 
tables, it may be a detriment to the animal system, and, economically, 
an actual disadvantage. 

Experiments were conducted in order to ascertain the approximate 
value of beet pulp after the act of diffusion. Three classes of experi" 
ment animals were fed respectively, with 50, 75, and 100 pounds of dif- 
fused pulp, deductions being made in the other foods fed to the animals 
in pro])()rtion to the respective increments of nitrogenous matter con- 
tained in the three rations specified. An increase was observed in the 
volume of milk given by the animals of from 12.G and 12.7 quarts respect- 
ively to 13.2 and 14.2 quarts without any depreciation of the quality of 
the milk being observed. On the other hand, not any increase in the 
living weight of the animals had occurred, and in the examples where 
100 pounds of the pulp had been served to the cattle an actual diminu- 
tion of weight had taken place. The maximum quantities of the diffu- 
sion pulp which it ai)pears advisable to serve to the different classes of 
animals are as follows: To cows in milk, 40 pounds; feeding oxen, 
90 pounds; and to feeding sheep, 5 pounds. It has been further ob- 
served that the distillery residues may be served to cattle in double 
the quantity of the diffusion pulp i)roviding that the animals receive 
the former in a warm state. As a result of this observation artificial 
preparations of potatoes and cottonseed meal have been made and fed 
to cattle in the warm state, and with a clear gain of 4 cents per cow 
per day. 

There is onjp other source of food for cattle which has not received the 
attention which it deserves: That is the leaves of the beet. At present 
those materials are merely browsed by sheep on the land where they 
lie, and the greater part is trodden into the soil. In some instances the 
leaves are mixed with the diffusion pulp and preserved in silos, or the 
leaves are preserved in the silo alone. Professor Maerker has made 
several experiments at Siegersleben for the purpose of determining the 
food value of the beet leaves and he proposes to continue his experi- 
ments during this year. 

lie gave to ten sheep 125 pounds of beet leaves in the form of en- 
silage, and to ten other sheep 90 pounds of diffusion pulp, taking care 
that the other foods given to the animals contained the same amounts 
of nitrogenous matters. The increase in weight of the ten sheep fed 
with beet leaves was 3.4 pounds, and of the ten sheep fed on diffusion 



225 

pulp, 4.1 pounds, showing an apparent advantage in favor of the Litter 
of 23 per cent. From the stand-point of econoni^^, however, the case was 
otherwise : The gain of the ten sheep fed on diffusion pulp was 4.G cents 
per head, whilst the money value of the increase of the ten sheep 
fed on the beet leaves was 6.4 cents per head. It is thus seen that the 
greatest increase in weight may not essentially represent the greatest 
gain. 

In certain other experiments the foods already specified were sup- 
plemented with respectively i pound of cattle food prepared from poppy 
seed and 1 pound of rice meal for each ten sheep, when an increase 
of weight was observed of 4.1 pounds and a gain of 10 cents per 
head. 

In feeding the ten sheep with beet leaves, allowing the animals to 
consume what they liked, 109 pounds were consumed without damage 
to health, and yielding an increase of weight of from 4.17 to 4.8 pounds 
and a money value of from 11 to 14 cents. 

In the leaves of the beet there is thus found an excellent article of 
diet for the feeding of cattle. The leaves may be valued at from 25 to 
30 cents per 250 pounds. If it be calculated that one acre will yield 
varying from 12,500 to 25,000 pounds, that amount would represent a 
food value per acre of from $25 to $00. 

Professor Maerker has also conducted comparative experiments 
with difi'usion pulp in the humid and dry states, respectively, and has 
found the results to be demonstratively in favor of the latter. The pulp 
in tbe dry state contained from 55 to 00 per cent, of non-nitrogenous 
matter and Oi to 7 per cent, of nitrogenous matter, 85 per cent, of the 
latter being digestible, whilst only 75 per cent, of the nitrogenous mat- 
ter in the humid state becomes digested. 

The cost of purchase of the diffusion pulp in the dry state may be 
calculated as follows: 

Cents. 

Average price of 250 pounds of dry pulp 12 

20 per cent, loss of material iu depot 2 

Cost of transport - 1 

Cost of ensilage (preservation) 2 

17 

The' feeding of cattle with the material in the moist state is not only 
inconvenient but conducive to certain forms of disease. 

The best process for the drying of the pulp is that adopted by Messrs. 
Biittner and Meyer. These gentlemen have guarantied the cost of dry- 
ing shall not exceed 2^ cents per 250 pounds of pulp. Hadmersleben 
has reduced the cost of desiccation to 2 cents, and expects to reduce it 
still further to li cents per 250 pounds. 

The experiments were carried out as follows: On the one hand the 
moist pulp was fed to the cattle with hay or grass and a good portion 
25474— Bull. 27 15 



226 

of the cattle cake. On the other haud the animals received the dry 
pulp and a portion of cattle cake less rich in nitroi«en. It has been 
established that the quantity of milk obtained was on the average the 
same from the dry as from the moist pulp, and the cost of feeding with 
the dry i)ulp was 2 cents per head per day less with the dry than with 
the moist pulp. In taking all the conditions into account it is esti- 
mated that the advantage in feeding cattle with dry pulp over the moist 
is on an average about $14 per head. About 20 pounds of the dry pulp 
is equal to 130 pounds in the moist state. 

The cultivators should endeavor to get the sugar manufacturers to 
commence the system of desiccating the pulp, either alone or in agree- 
ment with the cultivators, in order that a large proportion of that feed- 
ing material which at present is allowed to waste may be wholly util- 
ized in the feeding of cattle. 



MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR. 

The process of the manufacture of sugar from the sugar-beet is one 
which interests the agriculturist only from secondary considerations 
and for this reason will be treated of in this bulletin in the briefest 
possible manner to give an intelligent idea of its methods. The process 
of manufacture is no longer an experiment but a positive method, 
from which, with beets of a given richness, a definite output of sugar 
can be calculated. 

The beets, having been properly harvested and -delivered to the fac- 
tory, the general process of manufacture is as follows : 

The beets are first conveyed to washing-tanks provided with suitable 
apparatus for keeping them in motion and transferring them toward 
the end from which the fresh water enters, in order that the whole of 
the adhering soil, together with auy sand and pebbles, may be com- 
pletely removed. By a suitable elevator, the beets are next taken 
to a point above the center of the battery, whence they are dropped 
into a slicing apparatus. This apparatus is provided with knives 
with serrated edges, by which the beets are sliced into pieces of 
greater or less length and of small thickness, so that when placed in the 
cells of the battery they will not lie so closely together as to prevent the 
circulation of the diliusion juices. The slices, commonly called cos- 
settes, next pass into the diffusion battery in which the sugar is ex- 
tracted in the usual way. The extracted cossettes are carried through 
a press by which a portion of the water is removed, and they are then 
in suitable condition for use as cattle food. The diffusion juices are 
carried to carbonatation or saturation tanks, where they are treated with 
from 2 to 3 percent, of their weight of lime and afterward with carbonic 
acid until nearly all of the lime is precipitated. The slightly alkaline 
juices are next passed through filter presses by which the percipitated 



227 

lime and other matter are removed. The juices pass uext to a second set 
of'carbouatatioii tanks iu which they undergoa treatnientiu each particu- 
lar similar to the one just mentioned, except that the quantity of lime 
added to the second saturation is very small as compared with that of the 
first. The refiltered juices from the second saturation are carried to the 
multiple effect vacuum-pan and reduced to the condition of sirui^. The 
sirups are taken into the vacuum strike pan and reduced to suj^ar 
called masse cuite, containing from G to 10 per cent, of wafer. The 
uncrystallized sirups together with the water are separated from the 
, sugar by the centrifugals, and form the molasses. The molasses is 
either reboiled and a second crop of crystals obtained, or is treated in 
various ways for separating the sugar which it still contains. One of 
these methods which has come into general use is known as the Steffen 
process, and is described in detail further on. Another method con- 
sists in separating tlie salts which prevent the crystallization of the 
sugar by the process of osmosis. A third method consists in the use 
of strontium salts for the separation instead of lime salts as in the 
Steffen process; or, finally, the molasses may bo subjected to fermenta- 
tion and distillation and the sugar therein contained thus converted 
into alcohol. 

The above is the general method used for the manufacture of raw 
sugar. If refined sugar is to be made the juices and sirups are passed 
over bone-black to decolorize them and the crystals are washed in the 
centrifugal in order to make them perfectly white. Another method 
of purifying the crystals consists in washing them with sirups of va- 
rying degrees of consistency until all the molasses adhering thereto is 
washed away. For the details of the various processes with the ex- 
ception of the Steffen process, which is given further on, standard 
works on beet-sugar manufacture may be consulted. 

The following observations on the manufacture of beet sugar are 
taken from Mr. Spencer's report in Bulletin No. 5, of the Chemical 
Division, Department of Agriculture, pages 107, et seq. 

"EXTRACTION OF THE JUICP:. 

"The most usual method for extracting the juice from the beet is 
by diffusion. This process has been so successful that now but com- 
paratively few sugar-houses employ presses, cither hydraulic or contin- 
uous. 

"Diffusion batteries may be divided into two classes : 

" (I) The ordinary, consisting of a number of cells. 

"(2) The continuous, having but one cell. The first may be divided 
into (1) battery in line, (2) circular battery. 

"The ordinary diffusion battery is composed of several cells, usually 
twelve in number. They are so arranged that as soon as one cell or 
diffuser is charged with beet cuttings it is closed and warm water forced 



228 

into it. The water takes up a portion of the sugar aud tbeu enters a 
second diffuser charged witli fresh cuttings or cassettes* This oper- 
ation is repeated, until the juice from the first dififuser, having passed 
through a certain uumber of cells, leaves the last heavily charged with 
sugar. 

"In working a diffusion battery, one difluser is being charged and a 
second emptied while the rest of the battery is under pressure. 

" The arrangement of a battery, whether in a line, a double line, or 
a circle, depends quite often upon the space at the disposal of the sugar 
manufacturer. The circular arrangement requires a higher building 




owing to the position of the slicing machines, but nevertheless it is 
usually considered preferable to a line battery. Among the special 
advantages of a circular battery is the economy of labor. Another ad- 
vantage, and quite an important one, is that all the diftusers are under 
the immediate control of the workman in charge. The beet slicer is 
placed above the battery, a swinging funnel conducting the cossettes 

*Cos8ettes in Freuch, Schuitzel iu Gerinau. 



229 

into the diffasers. The exhausted cossettes, or i)ulp as they are termed, 
are dropped into a channel below and thence carried to the continuous 
presses by a chain and bucket elevator. 

" As I have indicated, the line battery differs from the circular only 
in the arrangement of the diffusers and the carrier necessary to charge 
them. 

" Fig. 9 illustrates a circular battery, Eiedel's system, constructed by 
the Hallesche Maschinenfabrik, Halle a. S. 

" THE CONTINUOUS DIFFUSER. 

" S%ice the invention of what is termed the German diffusion process, 
by Eobertv, it has been a favorite idea to devise a continuous diffuser. 
Robert himself attempted this, but without success. About six years 
ago Mr. Charles invented a continuous diffuser, which was afterwards 
successfully modified by Mr. Peret, of Roye, France. The following des- 
cription of the continuous diffuser has been taken from the Bulletin de 
la Soci6t6 ludustrielle d'Amiens, 1882 : 

" The continuous dift'usor consists of an iron cell, cylindrical in form, resting 
horizontally ui)on a foundation of masonry. Within this cell is a perforated iron 
cylinder, 1.30 meters (4.2G feet) in diameter and 11.20 meters (36.74 feet) in 
length. The axis is formed by a smaller cylinder. Between these two cylinders is 
a helix, pitch 70 centimeters (2.3 feet). The inner cylinder is revolved by a suitable 
connection witb a shaft. The speed of revolution is so adjusted that it requires 60 
minutes for the beet cuttings to traverse the length of the helix. The cossettes are 
continually immersed in water. The water enters the cell at the end where the ex- 
hausted cossettes are expelled. An automatic arrangement controls the amount of 
water admitted and keeps it at a certain level. The water gradually becomes charged 
with sugar and fiually leaves the cell at the end where the fresh cossettes enter it. 

"The conditions for a good diffusion are fulfilled when the cossettes and water move 
in opposite directions, the juice becoming more and more concentrated as it passes 
cossettes richer and richer in sugar. 

" The water enters at a temperature of 30° C. (86° F.). It is heated as it passes the 
coils placed between the fixed cell and the revolving cylinder, and its temperature is 
gradually increased to 75° C. or 80° C. (167° or 176° F.), and then, as it strikes fresh 
cossettes, it gradually becomes colder and leaves the diffuser at a temperature of 50° 
C. to 60° C. (122° to 140° F.). 

*' Three small vertical test cylinders are placed at equal distances from one another 
and serve for determining the specific gravity and the temperature of the juice. 
These observations are made at regular intervals and the results are entered in a 
note-book. 

# *■ » » # » # 

" In the ordinary form of diffusion battery the ten or twelve diffusers demand the 
constant attention of a skilled Avorkman. He must open and close the various valves 
from six to seven hundred times in the twelve hours he is on duty. 

" The continuous diffuser requires but little attention after one has regulated (1) 
the speed of the slicer, (2) the speed of the elevator which removes the exhausted 
cossettes, (3) the speed of rotating cylinder, (4) the pressure of steam on the coils, (5) 
the exit of the juice which controls the entrance of the water. 

" It is only necessary to note the temperature at intervals and regulate the pressure 
on the coils. The temperature and the quality of the beets are the only variables. 
One man and a boy are sutiicient to conduct the diffuser, beet slicer, and pulp presses. 



230 

"The following certificate will explain itself. 

" Complete machinery for working 2,000 hectoliters (44,000 gallons) of 
juice in twenty-four hours, including engines, beet slicer, the difl'user 
(with elevator for exhausted cossettcs), Klusemanu pulp ])resses, and 
transmission of power, etc.; total cost, 50,000 francs ($10,000); cost of 
repairs per season, 500 to 700 francs ($100 to $140). 

" Labor per ton of beets worked, not including washing the beets, 16 
centimes (3.2 cents). 

liesults ohtamed. 

Meau density of 2,000 hoctolitors of juico "1. 036 

Beets, per 100 liters, and each degree of density kilograms. . ^. 00 

Masse cuite per 100 kilograms of beets liters.. G. 63 

Masse cuite per hectoliter of juico do 1. 45 

First sugar, white, per 100 kilograms of Ijeets kilograms.. 4.492 

Sugar per 100 liters of masse cuite do 68, 

Second molasses per 100 kilograms of beets liters.. 4. 06 

Second molasses per 100 litem of first masse cuite do 61. 

Second sugar per hectoliter of masse cuite do 44. 

Molasses per 100 kilograms of masse cuite do 44. 

Ueets, per 100 kilograms of masse cuite kilograms., tl, 000. 

Pulp per 100 kilograms of beets do 40. 

Sugar per 100 kilograms of pulp do 0.41 

Rousseau, 
Chef de fahrication a Frayicres. 

The following table shows the results obtained in the sugar house at 
Roye (Somme), France : 

Table nhotving the extraction — Eoye sugar house (France), 1881 aiid 1882. 



Date. 



September 28. 
S<-pteml)er29. 
Septenibt^r 30. 



Avoragos. 



October 1 . 
October 2. 
October 3 
October 4 . 
October 5 . 
October fi. 
October 7. 
October 8 
Octob(!r 9. 
Octob(!r 10. 
October 11. 
October 12. 
Octobci- 13. 
Octobi^r U. 
October 15 
October ](i. 
October 17. 
October 18. 
October 19. 



1881. 



Specific 
gravity of 
tlio beet. 



1.050 



1.053 



1.0.515 
1. 0535 
1.0.541 
1. 0.521 
1.0.555 
1. 053 
1. 0525 
1.0.525 
1. 0535 
1. 0525 
1.052 
1.0.545 
1.054 
1.054 
1.0.5.55 
1. 0.54 
1. 057 



Specific 
gravity of 
the juico. 



1.023 
1.020 

1.028 



1.026 



1.0295 

1.029 

1.029 

1.0339 

1.03.33 

1.030 

1.032 

1.030 

1.03.55 

1.030 

1. 032 

1. 033 

1.034 

] . 034 

1.030 

1.033 

1.035 

1.0345 

1.035 



Tempera- 
tiiro. 



°C. 



Juice. 



Ueetoliters. 

900 

1325 

1495 



1217 



1275 
300 
1500 
1725 
1.575 
1700 
1725 
1575 
1000 
1825 
1050 
1750 
17.50 
17.50 
1725 
2000 
1775 
2000 
1700 



Sugar left 

in the 
cossettea. 



Per cent. 



0.57 



0.58 
0.55 
0.47 
0.45 
0.40 
0.45 
0.44 
0.37 
0.51 
0.45 
0.42 
0.48 
0.57 



0.45 
0.44 
0.55 



Or :3".G. 



t 2,200 pounds. 



231 



TahJe fill owing the extraction, eft'.— Continned. 



Date. 


Specific 
gravity of 
the beet. 


Specific 
gravity of 
the juico. 


Tempera- 
ture. 


Juice. 


Sugar left 
in the 

cossettes. 


1881. 


1. 0535 
1.055 
1. 0548 
1.055 1 
1. 0535 

""V.Ofib" 
1.049 
1. 051 
1.055 
1.055 
1.054 


1.032 
1.033 
1.033 


°C. 

70 
66 
69 
76 

77 
78 
78 
78 
78 
77 
78 
78 


neetoUters. 
1675 
1600 
' 1200 
300 
1700 
1800 
1800 
18.50 
1900 
1975 
2000 
1875 


Per cent. 
0.50 


October 21 .-- 

October 22 


0.57 
0.60 


October 23 

October 24 . 


0.45 


1.030 
1.0.30 
1. 0347 
1. 0349 
1.035 
1. 0353 
1. 0377 
1.0378 


0.48 






October 26 


0.52 


October 27 


0.40 


October 28 


0.38 


October 29 


0.39 


October 30 


0.40 


October 31 


0.41 






Averages 


1.0549 


1. 0339 


71 

78 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
79 
80 
80 
80 
80 
89 
72 
75 
76 
75 
78 
78 
72 
74 
76 
77 
78 
78 
',8 
77 
77 


1725 

1950 
1950 
1925 
2025 
1975 
1450 
1M75 
1900 
2000 
1825 
1625 
1275 
1925 
2000 
2000 
1925 
1950 
1400 
1775 
2625 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2000 
575 
1950 
2025 


0.51 




1.0525 

1.0.54 

1.0.53 

1.051 

1.054 

1.055 

1.054 

1.0518 

1. 053 

1.053 

1.0525 

1.052 

1.052 

1. 0565 

1.050 

1.0555 

1.052 


1.0367 
1. 0307 
1.0364 
1.0309 
1. 0378 
1. 0306 
1. 0365 
1. 0365 
1. 0365 
C. 0363 
1. 0368 
1.0381 
1. 0372 
1.0372 
1.0360 
1.0363 
1. 0358 
1. 0357 
1.0357 
1. 0357 
1.0351 
1.035- 
1. 0357 
1. 0349 
1. 0348 
1.0348 
1.0346 


0.40 




0. 39 


November 3 


0.39 
0.40 
0.1,3 




CM 
0.54 


November 9 


0.44 
0.44 
0.37 




0.44 




0.36 




0.40 




0.39 




0.39 




0.40 




0.44 








1.055 
1.0.55 
1.051 
1.(155 
1.053 
1.053 


0.40 




0.32 




0.34 




0.36 




0.25 




0.30 








1. 0575 
1. 0525 


6.50 
0.48 








1.0535 


1.0301 


77.5 


1940 


0.40 








1.0525 

1.0.54 

1.0.52 

1. 051 

1.0.505 

l.O.iO 

1.051 

1 . 053 

1.049 

1 . 0.505 

1.0.50 

1. 051 

1.050 

1. 0477 

1.0495 

1.0495 

1. 0485 

1.050 


1.0351 
1.036 
1.0365 
1. 03.53 
1 . 0352 
1.0356 
1. 0350 
1. 03.58 
1. 0309 
1. 03.57 
1. 0304 
1.03.55 
1.0361 
1.0359 
1. 0363 
1. 03.57 
1. 0356 
1.0352 
1.0326 
1.038 
1.041 
1. 0403 
].0:i92 
1.0380 
1.0387 
1.0383 
1.041 
1 039 
1. 0395 
1. 0396 


78 
78 
79 
83 
86 
84 
84 
86 
86 
85 
85 
82 
81 
80 
80 
80 
80 
82 
85 
82 
87 
87 
88 
80 
87 
89 
90 
90 
90 
91 


2000 
2050 
1950 
1900 
2000 
1975 
2000 
1975 
2000 
1950 

825 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2000 
1375 

450 
2000 
2050 
2050 
2000 
1.575 
1400 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2000 
2050 


0.43 




0.33 




0. 36 




0.38 




0.37 




0.38 




0.39 




0.35 




0.48 




0.39 


Uecenibor 11 


0.36 
0.32 




0.35 




0.42 




0.37 




0.37 




0.44 




0.44 








1. 0525 
1. 053 
1.0508 


0.65 




0.79 




0.88 








1. 0461 

1.054 

1.050 

1.050 

1.0448 

1. 0155 

1. 040 




December 26 


6.52 




0.51 


December 28 


0.52 




0.40 


December 30 


0.45 




0.48 




1.050 


1.038 


84.5 


2000 


0.44 



232 



Tahle showing the extracliov, etc. — Contiuned. 



Date. 



January 2 . . 
January .'t . . 
January 4 .. 
January 5 .. 
January 6 . . 
January 7 . . 
January 8 . 
January 9 . , 
January 20 
January 21 



Spceilic 
gravity of 
tlie bo(^t. 



1.053 
1. 0509 
1.0505 
1.0495 



1.048 
1.052 

1.051 



1. 0513 



Specilio 
jjravity of 
the juice. 



1. 037C 

l.O.-iS 

1.041 

1. 0374 

1.039 

1.0375 

1.039 

1.0375 

1. 0386 

1.038 



Tenipora- 
ture. 



°C. 



1.038 



Jui('o. 



nectoliterx. 
1425 
2000 
1975 
2000 
2000 
2000 
1500 
1575 
1250 
1900 



1980 



Sugar loft 

In the 
cossettes. 



0.57 
0.55 
0.54 
0.57 



0.57 
0.55 

0.50 



" It may be safely stated that iu Geraiauy aud Austro-Hungary not 
less tliau 90 per cent, of the sugar-houses employ the diffusion process 
for extracting the juice. The proportion in France is much smaller, 
owing to the tax being based upon the sugar actually extracted. Since 
the passage of the new law, levying the tax as in Germany, many French 
sugar-houses have adoiited this process. I believe that in a few years 
the diffusion will be the only process employed for extraction, except 
in a few districts where local conditions prevent its adoption. 



" EVAPORATION. 

" The economical evaporation of the juice is one of the most important 
Ijroblems with which the sugar manufacturer has to deal. 

" The hydraulic presses yield 100 pounds of dilutejuice per 100 pounds 
of beets. With the diffusion process this proportion is considerably 
larger, being 120 pounds dilute juice per 100 pounds of beets. It is 
evident from the above statements that a beet-sugar house employing 
the diffusion process must be supplied with evaporating facilities at 
least one-fifth greater than one employing hydraulic presses. Invent- 
ors have not been backward in their eftbrts to meet this demand for 
Improvements in the apparatus for rapid and economical evaporation. 

"One of the most recent and important improvements in multiple- 
effect apparatus is known as the WelnerJeliuek system.* 

* Since the above was written tliree or four new mnltiple -effect pans have been in- 
vented in this country. Information concerning them may be had by addressing the 
Kilby Manufacturing Company, Cleveland, Ohio; Thomas Gaunt, 115 Broadway, New 
York ; Geo. M. Ncwhall Company, Philadelphia ; Fort Scott Foundry, Fort Scott. 
Other makers of evaporating apparatus are John Turl & Sous, No. 534 West Twenty- 
eighth street, New York; Edwards & Hauptuuin, 22 Front street. New Orleans; 
Joseph Oat & Sons, 228 Quarry street, Philadelphia ; Whitney Iron Works, New 
Orleans ; John S. Moore, 1G9 Gravier street, New Orleans ; John H. Murphy, 123 
Magazine street, New Orleans ; H. Dudley Coleman & Co., No. 9 Perdido street, 
New Orleans; Leeds &. Co., New Orleans; Colwell Iron Works, 74 Cortlandt street, 
New York; The Pusey & Jones Manufacturing Company, Wilmington, Del.; The 
Squier Manufacturing Company, Buffalo, N. Y. ; Robert Dcelj, Brooklyn, N. Y. 



233 

" lu this system the pans are arranged horizontally and the heating 
space is divided into two chambers — an upper and lower. This divis- 
ion into chambers permits the passage of the vapors from the upper to 
the lower, facilitating the discharge of the water of condensation, and 
increases the heating surface. These chambers are each subdivided 
into two others of unecpial size. The shape of the pan reduces the 
danger of loss through particles of the juice becoming entangled with 
the disengaged vapors. In addition there is also the usual arrange- 
ment for diminishing this loss." 

"TREATMENT OF THE JUICE. *" 

" Preliminary to describing a few of the more important processes 
employed in the manufacture of sugar from the beet, it may be well 
to indicate brieU^' the usual method for treating beet juices. 

" Unfortunately, the simple process employed for clarifying cane juices 
is not at all successful with the beet. Beet juice contains but slight 
traces, if any, of glucose or reducing sugar, whereas the cane juice usually 
carries a notable quantity of this substance. 

"In treating beet juices a large excess of lime is added, usually from 
2i to 3 per cent. Carbonic acid gas is then forced through the juice, 
and the excess of lime is precipitated in the form of a carbonate, and 
carries down with it mechanically many of the impurities. This opera- 
tion is terminated when the lime precipitate becomes granular and set- 
tles readily. At this point there still remains about a gram and a half 
of lime (CaO) per liter of juice. After having been passed through 
filter presses the juice is treated, boiling hot, with ^ per cent, of lime, 
and carbonic acid is passed through it, until all the lime is precipitated. 
This operation is termed the saturation, tho, former i\x(i first carhona- 
tation. The juice is again filtered through presses. Its further treat- 
ment is very similar to that of the cane. 

" Experiments have been made by Dr. Wiley* which indicate that a 
modification of this process could be successfully employed with cane 
juices. This method would be especially applicable in the manufacture 
of sugar fromt sorghum or in the treatment of very dilute diflfusion 
juices, 

" The vacuum pans employed in boiling beet sugar are usually very 
high in proportion to their diameter, in order to enable the panman to 
build up large crystals. 

"As a rule, in Germany, the first sugars are not washed, and polarize 
9G percent. In France, on the contrary, those houses having facilities 
for making white sugar usually do so, and turn out an article polarizing 
99per cent. 



• Bulletin No. 3, Chemical Division, United States, Department Agriculture, 1884. 
t For more recent experiments on a manufacturing scale, see Bulletins, Nos. G and 14, 



234 

" STOEIiNITZ SUGAR-HOUSE. 

" This sugar-house is located about 15 miles from Ualle, The works 
were erected by a stock conipauy. The stock is divided into 150 
shares of 6,000 marks ($1,500). Each share-holder binds himself to fur- 
nish the beets from a certain number of acres of land, for which he 
receives 22 marks ($5.17) per 1,000 kilograms (2,200 pounds), and, in 
addition, the pulp from his beets. Other farmers are paid 25 marks 
($5.87) per ton of 1,000 kilograms, and receive no pulp ; but, if they 
prefer it, they are paid in the same way as the share-holders. This in- 
sures a plentiful supply of beets, and is the plan generally adopted by 
German sugar-houses. 

" The soil of the surrounding countrj^ tributary to Stoebnitz is rather 
a light clay, easily worked, and capable of producing an excellent beet. 
The sugar-house furnishes the seed to the farmers. Selected samples 
from the field have polarized as high as 22 per cent, sucrose. Glucose 
is only present in immature beets, or in those which have sprouted in 
the silos. 

" The Stoebnitz sugar-house is located in the center of a great depres- 
sion, the neighboring hills sloping gradually to it. It is readily accessi- 
ble by good country roads radiating in all directions. Its location pos- 
sesses many advantages, and but one serious disadvantage. This latter 
is its distance from rail communication. 

" The greater part of the machinery has been constructed by the Hal- 
lesche Maschinenfabrik. Mr. Roediger, a mechanical engineer con- 
nected with this establishment, kindly accompanied me on my visit to 
Stoebnitz. 

" As the acreage tributary to Stoebnitz has increased from time to 
time, the works have gradually reached their present magnitude through 
successive enlargements; hence, as one would naturally expect, the ar- 
rangement of the buildings and machinery is not such as would give 
the greatest economy of labor. Old walls, constructed for a smaller 
sugar-house, have imposed many restrictions upon the manager in the 
disposition of his machinery. Notwithstanding the disadvantages under 
which he labored, he has succeeded in building up a model sugar-house. 

" The carts and wagons are driven directly into the beet shed and dis- 
charge their loads through trap-doors into the receiving-room below. 
Here a large force, composed mostly of women, throw the beets upon 
the carrier, which transports them to the washers, two in number. The 
washed beets are then carried by an elevator to an upper story and 
dumped into cars, to be weighed by the excise officer. The weighed 
beets are then sliced and conveyed to the two diffusion batteries. These 
batteries are ranged in a double line, twelve diffusers in each line. 
They liave an united capacity of GOO tons of 2,200 pounds, in twenty- 
four hours. The batteries are of the Riedel tj pe, constructed some 
years since. Between the two lines is a large trough to receive the 



235 

exhausted cossettes, whence they are conveyed to six continuous pulp- 
presses, four of the type known as Khisniann and the other two Ber- 
green. 

"The pressed pulps still contain from 75 to 85 percent, of water, and 
in this moist condition are 40i)er cent, of the weight of the beets worked. 
This pulp is very valuable as cattle food, and sells for about $1.70 per 
ton. The relative values of diffusion and the old hydraulic press pulps 
is still a much debated question in some sugar countries. The juice 
from the diftusers is conducted to a calorisator, where it is heated to 
about 90^ C. (194° F.) and is then treated with lime. 

"By the use of calorisators (Fig. 15) it is claimed that the heat ex- 
pended in the process of diffusion is not lost, and that subsequent op- 




^/hs)SS7- }(y^ 



erations are carried on much more rapidly than by the old method. 
Generally in France the juice is conducted into tanks, whence it is drawn 
off as needed for the carbonatation pans. Consequently it loses much 
of its heat, and the first carbonatation demands a longer time. This 
entails a much larger number of carbonatation pans. As at Stoebnitz, 



236 

also generally in Gerimiiiy, the carbouatatioii pans are covered and the 
foam is kept down by a jet of live steam. In many French sugar-houses, 
where hirge open pans are employed, the foam is beaten down by an 
arrangement of i)addles, driven by machinery, and often in addition by 
a jet of steam. 

"The French manufjicturer usually commences his first carbonatatiou 
at a low temperature, 40° C. (104 F.), which he gradually increases as 
the carbonatatiou progresses. By this means he claims that he avoids 
dangerous combinations between the lime, carbonic acid, and the 
sugar. 

"At Stoebnitz about 2i per cent, (of the weight of the beets) of lime 
is employed in the defecation, and the usual quantity, about li grams 
per liter, is left in the juice after the first treatment with carbonic acid. 

" The carbonatated juice, including the suspended precipitate, is sent to 
the filter-presses. The precipitate is washed with hot water and the 
washings are added to the filtrate. The filtered juice is treated with a 
second portion of lime, one-fourth of 1 per cent, of the weight of the 
beets; the lime is again precipitated by carbonic acid and the juice is 
passed through the filter-presses ; a third portion, about a liter and a 
half of cream of lime, is then added and afterwards saturated with sul- 
phurous acid. After passing the filter-presses, the juice is concentrated 
to 230 B. 

" This sirup is treated with a final and very small portion of lime, 
which is i^recipitated by carbonic acid, and the sirup after filtration is 
boiled to grain. 

"This sugar-house has two double effects, one of the ordinary type, 
and the second the Welner-Jelinek system. 

"The vacuum pans have a capacity, one of G0,000 pounds dry sugar, 
and the other 25,000 jiounds. 

"The massecuite is dropped into small coolers, each of about one 
hectoliter capacity. These coolers are shaped like the frustum of a 
pyramid, and can be readily transported by means of a small two- 
wheeled carriage. (ISee Fig. 49.) 

" It requires but little more time to fill these coolers than to drop the 
massecuite into the larger mixers common in Louisiana. The masse- 
cuite is expelled from the cooler by compressed air. The cooler itself 
weighs about 50 pounds, and when filled with massecuite. 400 pounds. 

" The manager of the Stoebnitz sugar-house stated that he obtains 
from 4 to 6 per cent, (of the weight of the massecuite) more sugar by 
allowing it to become perfectly cold before swinging out. 

" The next portion of these works that deserves more than this pass- 
ing notice is the chemical laboratory. It is evident, from the fact that 
a very large proportion of sugar-houses employ chemists, that the Ger- 
man manufacturers fully appreciate the advantage of a chemical control 
of the work. Most of the important improvements in i)roce8ses have 
had their origin in the laboratory. 



237 



"Tlie Stoebnitz works liavean excelleut laboratory. It is located ou 
the second floor and occupies two large, well lighted and ventilated 
rooms. The chemist and his assistant keep a chemical control of all 
the processes. The juice and diftusiou pulps are examined at frequent 
intervals. Samples of the beets from each lot brought to the sugar- 
house are also analyzed. The laboratory is one of the busiest parts of 
the sugar-house. 




Fig. 49. 

" Stoebnitz has unsurpassed advantages for the economical generation 
of steam. Within 600 yards of the sugar-house there is an inexhausti- 
ble mine of lignite or brown coal. This lignite is mined very exten- 
sively, and transported upon a tram-way to the works, and is dumped 
into large bins above the boilers. By an automatic arrangement it is 
fed directly upon the fires. 

" Lignite furnishes an excellent fuel, but yields only about a third as 
much heat as bituminous coal. The ash amounts to about 14 per cent. 
The cost of lignite delivered at the machine works in Halle is less than 
$1 per ton. Good bituminous coal costs in the same locality from $3.75 
to $4.50 per ton. 



238 



" CAMBUKO SUGAR-HOUSE. 

" The sugar factory at Oamburg is situated on tlie river Saale, about 
25 miles from Halle. The buildings are located about 100 yards /rom 
the river, from which the works derive an unfailing supply of water. 

" Comparatively few beet-sugar houses have equal water advantages- 
In most factories the vapors from the evaporating juices are condensed 
and the water is used again and again. This necessitates a special 
arrangement for cooling the water. This consists of a frame- work, sup- 
porting bundles of willow twigs, over which the water passes, falling 
from one bundle to another, until it liually reaches the reservoir which 
supplies the factory. 

"A branch railway has been constructed, connecting with the main 
line, and beets are brought in and dumped directly into the carriers. 
These latter consist of a system of narrow cement-lined trenches, through 
which a constant stream of water is flowing. 

"The rapidly-flowingcurrent propels the beets, and finally drops them 
^nto a box, from which they are carried by an elevator to the washers, 
two in number. 

" This hydraulic carrier, as it is termed, is a very convenient and eco 
nomical method for transporting beets, and for factories having a good 
water supply can be highly recommended. The trenches are easily 
constructed, and are so arranged that they admit of ready access for 
repairs. The water of condensation furnishes the supply for the con- 
duits. 

"The washed beets fall upon a ])erforated plate,which is rapidly shaken 
by machinery in order to throw off the water and dry them as much as 
practicable. This is evidently very important, as an excise tax is levied 
on the washed beets. The water so thrown off amounts to at least 3 
per cent, of the weight of the beets. 

" The diffusion battery is of the Hallesche Machinenfabrik construe 
tion, and has all the latest improvements. 

The diffusers are arranged in a circle and discharge the pulp into a 
central basin, whence it is lifted to the presses by a chain and bucket 
elevator. The helix form of elevator for pulp is no longer used with 
Riedel's battery, as it will not work satisfactorily at so great an angle 
as 450. 

" The presses are of the Bergreen type. It will be noticed that two 
presses onl.y are required to do the same work as three at Stoebnitz. 
The process employed at Camburg for extracting the sugar from th 
juice does not differ materially from that in vogue in most of the sugar- 
houses in France. The only difference is in the reheating of the juice 
coming from the diffusers, before carbonatation ; this is accomplished 
by two calorisators, in one of which the temperature is raised to a cer- 
tain degree by exhaust-steam and in the other to 90oC. by direct steam. 
I would again call attention to this idea of conducting the first carbon- 
atation at a high temi)erature. 



239 

'^ Not having been able to secure analyses of the juice, 1 can not say 
whether the results are better than by the old process or not.' This 
method certainly has the advantage of hurrying thepreciintation, and 
by diminishing the time required, a few pans will do the work of several 
working in the old way, and there is still another advantage. Since 
the precipitation is accomplished so much more rapidly, it is evident 
that the carbonic acid is better utilized and that the waste is reduced 
to a minimum. 

" A series of montes jus are employed to force the juice to any part of 
the sugar-house. Instead of steam pressure,compressed air is employed. 
As soou as a monte jus is emptied, the air-pump is connected with it and 
the air is forced into another. By this method the power expended in 
compressing the air is economized. The use of compressed air instead 
of high-i)ressure steam is not only much more economical, but in addi- 
tion possesses the advantage of not injuring the juice. 

" The quantities of lime (CaO) employed are as follows : 1st. Carbona- 
tation 2.2.'i to 2.5 per cent, of the weight of the beets. Saturation, .25 
per cent. 1.0 to 1.5 grams lime per liter of juice is left after the first 
carbonatatiou ; after the saturation .03 to .04 gram. 

"The lime is placed iu wire baskets, which are lowered into the car- 
bonatatiou pans. This plan is considered preferable to adding slacked 
lime. 

"The lime precipitate, usually termed scum or mud, is washed in the 
filter-press by a stream of water. This precii)itate amounts to about 6 
per cent, of the weight of the beets worked. 

" While ou this subject it may be well to speak of two of the more im- 
portant processes for the recovery of the sugar left in the scums. 

"The proper treatment of the scums is of very great importance. 
Unwashed scums contain about 4 per cent, sugar, and amount to at least 
9 or 10 iiounds per hundred i)ounds of beets. This corresponds to a loss 
of .36 to .40 per cent, sugar, or 7.0 to 8.8 pounds of sugar per long ton of 
beets. 

"By means of an ingenious device for washing, Mr. Charles Gallois 
has succeeded in reducing the loss of sugar to from .20 to .40 per cent, 
of the "Scums. 

" This device consists of a three-way valve, so arranged that the filter- 
press can be placed in communication with either the montejus contain- 
ing the scums, a mixture of scum and hot water, or boiling water. This 
simple device can be attached to any filter-press. 

"To operate the press: Upen wide the valve connecting with the 
scums. The press soou fills. When the volume of juice flowing from 
the press diminishes perceptibly, change the valve and admit scums 
diluted with water. The density of the juice will now rapidly diminish. 
Open the water valve and pass boiling water through the press until 
the density indicates that but little juice is being extracted. The last 
portions of dilute juice are employed to slack lime for the defecation. 



240 

"Another successful method is as follows : The scums are pressed in 
an ordinary filter ; the residue, or precipitate, is removed from the filter, 
thoroughly mixed with water, and is again pressed. This results in a 
very decided decrease in the weight of the scums, showing that a large 
l)roportion of the sugar has been extracted. It is claimed that this 
method reduces the danger of redissolving the impurities contained in 
the lime precipitate. 

••' When this factory was constructed two years since the process for 
treating the juice with sulphurous acid and entirely suppressing the 
use of bone-black was not yet an assured success, consequently, rather 
than risk a new and still uncertain process, the new works were sup- 
plied with a battery of closed filters and a Langen-Schatten bone-coal 
kiln. Since this time the sulphurous acid process has advanced very 
much in favor with sugar manufacturers, and now many sugar-houses 
entirely suppress the use of bone-black. 

" For evaporation this house has one triple-effect, and for boiling to 
grain, oae vacuum pan. The barometric vaccum pump is used. 

"TREATMENT OF THE MASSECUITE. 

"The massecuite is dropped into small coolers, similar to those at 
Stoebnitz (Fig. 10). 2 feet 6 inches deep, 10 inches long, 1 foot 6 inchi-s 
wide at top, and 1 foot at the bottom. Capacity approximately 1.4 
hectoliters. 

"After remaining 12 hours in the cooling room the massecuite is ex- 
pelled from the cooler by compressed air, and is dropped into the mixer 
below- It is claimed that by the use of these coolers the yield of first 
sugar is largely increased. 

"Dr. Prella, superintendent of the Camburg works, made an experi- 
ment two or three years since, to determine if this is really the case. 
He took equal volumes of the massecuite, then swung out the sugar 
from one immediately after dropping it from the pan ; the yield was 62 
per cent, sugar. The second portion he set aside 12 hours, until it was 
l)erfectly cold ; this yielded 68 per cent, sugar, a gain of 6 percent. He 
now invariably allows the massecuite to become cold before swinging 
out. The following are a few percentages taken from Dr. Prella's note- 
book and show the amount of sugar obtained several days in succession 
last season: 75 per cent., 74 per cent., 74.2 per cent., 77 per cent., 71 
per cent., 72 per cent., 76 per cent. 

" The Camburg sugar-house has not yet finished its second campaign. 
Its first year's work was remarkably successful. The house being sup- 
plied with every facility for good work, and having an exceptionally 
good harvest of beets, both as regards quantity and quality, yielded a 
very large profit to the owners. The cost of the sugar-house was about 
$225,000. Its capacity is 300 long tons per 21 hours, or 30,000 tons for 
the campaign. This establishment at Camburg is in every respect a 
model sugar-house. 



241 

"DETAILED STATEMENTS OF THE WORKINGS OF SEVENTEEN GERMAN 

SUGAR-HOUSES. 

" In order to determine a basis for taxing the beet-sugar industry, 
the German Government selects certain sugar-houses and requires them 
to make detailed reports. In these reports each sugar-house is desig- 
nated by a letter of the alphabet. Care is taken to select only those 
factories which are fair representatives of the districts in which they are 
located. 

" The co})y of these tables for 1882 and 1883, which accompanies this 
report, is given to show as briefly as possible statistics of the yield and 
expenses in the manufacture of beet sugar. 
25474— Bull. 27 16 



242 



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244 

"THE EXTRACTION OF THE SUGAR FROM THE MOLASSES. 

" It has long been a problem with sugar manufacturers to devise a 
method for extracting the sugar from the molasses. The importance of 
this problem is such that it has led many of the most noted inventors 
in the field of sugar manufacture to investigate it. It is stated that in 
France 15 per cent, of the sugar in the beet remains in the molasses. 
This corresponds to a loss of about 1^ per cent, on the weight of the 
beet. This loss is even more important in the beet than the cane sugar 
manufacture. The beet molasses is very highly colored and has an ex- 
tremely disagreeable taste. In fact, it can only be utilized for the man- 
ufacture of vinegar or for distilling purposes. 

" Quite a number of processes have been proposed for the extraction 
A the sugar from molasses, a few of which have been successful. From 
a chemical jjoint of view this is a comparatively easy problem, but com- 
mercially or mechanically speaking it is an extremely difficult one. 

" It is a well-known fact among manufacturers that all the sugar can 
be readily separated by precipitation as a barium saccharate, but the 
cost of the barium salt precludes its use. Again, the processes known 
as " elutiou," depending upon the precipitation of a lime saccharate and 
subsequent washing of this precipitate with dilute alcohol, are both 
chemically and mechanically successful. The elution processes, however, 
can only be employed in those countries where alcohol either pays a 
very low excise tax, or is entirely free from tax when used for man- 
ufacturing purposes. These brief statements merely indicate the diffi- 
culties which the chemist and manufacturer have been compelled to 
face. In many instances, after a long series of experiments in his labo- 
ratory, the chemist has been compelled to yield to difficulties not always 
chemical, but often of a purely mechanical nature. 

" For example, he has succeeded in producing a saccharate of lime, 
containiug all the sugar in the molasses ; but the saccharate would con- 
tain many iuipurities which could only be eliminated by careful wash- 
ing. On attempting to wash this combination between the lime and 
sugar the filter-press would soon clog and refuse to do the work. Had 
the precipitated saccharate been granular this would not have been the 
result. Notwithstanding these difficulties and failures two successful 
processes have been devised. In the more recent, the Steffen separa- 
tion i^rocess, the inventor has succeeded in readily producing a granu- 
lar i)recipitate of tribasic saccharate of lime. The other process is 
termed the Strontium Process. Not having had an opportunity to visit 
works employing strontium, I shall only describe the Steffen process. 

''CHEMISTRY OF THE SEPARATION PROCESS. 

" Very complete investigations have been made of the lime saccha- 
rates, with the especial object of utilizing their proi>erties in the sepa- 
ration of sugar. The lime saccharates are three iu number : 

Monobasic (C12H22O11), CaO. 

Dibasic (CzHziO,,), 2 CaO. 

Tribasic (CiaHaaO,,), 3 CaO. 



245 

" Some chemists claim the existence of a fourth, the tetrabasic. 

" If a portion of finely powdered pure quicklime be added to a 6 to 
12 per cent, sugar solution, in the proportion of one molecule of lime for 
each molecule of sugar, the temperature of the solution being kept be- 
low 30° C. (86° F.), the monobasic saccharate of lime will be formed. 
This saccharate is perfectly soluble in water. It is necessary for the 
success of this experiment that the quicklime be recently calcined and 
finely powdered. 

"If this solution of monobasic saccharate be heated it will be decom- 
posed and the tribasic saccharate precipitated. To form the dibasic 
saccharate it is necessary to add an additional molecule of lime, under 
the same physical conditions as before. The dibasic saccharate may be 
separated by crystallization in the cold. 

" The tribasic saccharate is much more important from a commercial 
point of view than the others. It is with difficulty soluble in 200 parts 
of water, but insoluble in a saturated water solution of the tribasic salt 
itself. When precipitated under certain well-defined conditions it is 
granular. Sugar can be completely precipitated in this combination 
from a dilute solution. This precipitate being crystalline can readily 
be washed in a filter. 

" To form the tribasic saccharate proceed as follows : Dissolve a cer- 
tain quantity of sugar in water, making a G to 12 per cent, solution. 
By means of some suitable arrangement keep this solution at a temper- 
ature below 30° C (86° F.). For every molecule of sugar add three 
molecules of very finely-powdered and freshly-burned lime. The lime 
must be added in small portions, the solution being stirred constantly. 
The tribasic saccharate of lime will be precipitated. 

" The following analyses show the composition of the saccharate ob- 
tained by the above method: 



Calculation. 



Carbon (C) . . . 
Hydrogen (H) 
Oxygen (O).. 
Caiciuiu(Ca) .. 




25.53 

4.96 

48.33 

21.28 



* De la Diffusion. Par Jules Cartuyvels, p. 263. 

"This saccharate is readily soluble in a sugar solution. 

"The tribasic saccharate of lime can not be preserved any great 
length of time. Even at the end of two or three weeks the proportion 
of sugar decreases. The sugar decomposes and forms organic salts 
with the lime. 

*" The crystals of sugar obtained by the separation process resemble a 
confused mass of needles. If these crystals be dissolved in water and 
recrystallized they will assume the normal form. 



'The peculiar form of these crystals is due to the presence of rafinose. 



246 

"THE SEPARATION PROCESS. 

" I visited tlie sugar-house at Elsdorf, near Cologue, Germany, to ex- 
amine into the practical workings of this process. The Elsdorf sugar- 
house was the first, I believe, to adopt it, and experiment upon a large 
scale. I afterwards visited the works of Mr. Max Le Docte, at Gem- 
bloux, Belgium, and examined the machinery, as adopted by Mr. Steffen 
after a year's exi)erience in the practical application of his separation 
process. Phites Nos. 3, 4, 5, and G are from drawings kindly fur- 
nished me by Mr. Gerard Oyeus, of Paris. 

" Before describing the separation jirocess it may be well to s])eak of 
the 

"COMPOSITION OF BEET MOLASSES. 

" The averages oi' a large number of analyses of beet molasses show 
its f'omposition to be about as follows : 

Per cent. • 

Sucroso 47. f) 

Koducing sugars >> 

Ash O.-.l 

Water 20. f) 

Organic matters 2 J. 2 

100.0 

" The percentage of reducing sugars as given above is rather high, as 
l>eet molasses does not usually contain more than a trace. 

'' The ash consists i)riiicipany of salts of potassium, sodium, and mag- 
nesium. Phosphate of potassium is one of the principal constituents. 

" The recovery of these mineral substances forms quite an industry in 
connection with the distillation of the molasses. One hundred pounds 
of molasses yields 10 pounds of black ash. 

" Tlie Steffen separation process depends upon the precipitation in tlie 
cold of the tribasic lime saccharate, sparingly soluble and of a granular 
structure. 

" The freshly burned quicklime is first broken into small pieces by an 
ore-crusher, such as is used in the mining regions of this country. The 
broken lime is carried by an elevator to a mill, where it is ground to a 
very fine powder. This mill resembles in every respect an ordinary 
ilouring mill. Special precautions are taken to prevent the lime powder 
from being inlialed by the workmen. 

" The powdered lime is next conveyed by an elevator to another room, 
where it is passed through a fine wire gauze sieve. It is extremely im- 
portant in this process that the lime be reduced as nearly as possible 
to an impalpable iiowder. Precautions are taken to remove any parti- 
cles of iron from the powder by means of magnets. The powdered lime 
falls into a box holding a certain quantity, and is divided automatically 
into equal portions. From this box the portions are dropped at inter- 
vals into the mixer containing the diluted molasses. It is necessary 
that the temperature in this mixer should not rise above 30° C. (86 F.). 



247 

The lower the temperature the quicker the lime will combine with the 
sugar. 

" The mixer consists of a large closed iron cylinder placed in a vertical 
position. Within this cylinder is a system of tubes arranged similarly 
to those in a pan of an ordinary double effect. Cold water (below 15° 
C, 59° F.) circulates about these tubes, entering below and discharging 
from above. The dilute molasses circulates through and above this 
system of tubes ; a helix, revolved by suitable machinery, keeps the mixt- 
ure in constant motion that it may be quickly cooled. 

" The operations for the production of the tribasic lime saccharate are 
conducted as follows : 

" A certain quantity of molasses is accurately measured. Water is 
added to it until the density of the solution is 12° Brix (G.G° B.), the per- 
centage of sugar being from 7 to 8. This solution is cooled down to 
15° C (59° F.) ; small portions of the powdered lime are then added at 
intervals of about a minute. The temperature increases a little after 
each addition of lime. Before adding more lime it must be again re- 
duced to 15° C. This operation continues until lime has been added 
from ten to thirteen times, when the sugar is all precipitated. The work- 
man determines this point by the density of a "proof" filtered from the 
mixture. The density of this filtrate should not be greater than 6° to 
G^° Brix (3.5° B.). The total quantity of lime added is 93.4 pounds 
lime per 100 pounds of sugar in the molasses. When this process was 
first invented much larger quantities of lime were employed, often as 
much as 150 pounds per 100 pounds of sugar. The chemist at Elsdorf 
informed me that 93.4 pounds is sufficient. 

'' The unwashed lime saccharate resembles a dirty milk of lime. After 
leaving the mixer it is pumped to the filter-piresses. The filters are 
fitted for washing the saccharate in the press. The mother liquor, con- 
taining all the impurities of the molasses, is used as a fertilizer. The 
water for washing the saccharate is carefully measured, and the same 
quantity per press is always employed. The wash water is afterwards 
used to dilute the molasses. By this means losses due to the slight 
solubility of the saccharate are avoided. 

" It is important that the pressure on the filter-presses should not 
exceed two and one-half atmospheres. An excess of pressure over 
this limit will cause the saccharate to cake in the presses and it will be 
impossible to wash it. 

" The filter-cloths require washing every four or five days. The cloths 
from one press per day are replaced by clean ones. 

<'The co-efiBcient of purity of the saccharate, i. e., the percentage of 
pure saccharate in the crude, ranges from 97.5 to 98.5, and will avearge 
about 98. 

" If one wishes to simply extract the sugar from the molasses, having 
obtained the tribasic saccharate, it is only necessary to decompose it 
with hot water, remove the lime by precipitation and filtration, and 



248 

evaporate the filtrate. But the greater number of establishments em- 
l)loying the Stetlen substitution process work it iu connection with 
beet-sugar houses. In this case the saccharate of lime replaces the lime 
for defecation. 

" It is not sufficient to simply treat the saccharate with water to form 
a lime paste suitable for defecating. The objection is that the saccha- 
rate is in a granular state and is not readily acted upon by the carbonic 
acid. To produce a perfectly smooth milk of lime, free from grains, the 
saccharate is decomposed by hot juice. An average of 02 per cent, of 
the sugar contained in the molasses is extracted by this process. 

"EXPENSES FOE LABOR. 

"The extreme simplicity of this process is quite noticeable. There 
are no operations requiring skilled labor aside from the control exer- 
cised by the chemist. There is not an operation that can not be per- 
formed by a common laborer. 

" At Elsdorf the workmen at the mixers receive one mark and a half 
per day (about 36 cents) ; at the filter-presses, one'and a quarter marks 
(30 cents). These wages are about the average for the entire sugar- 
house. 

"TREATMENT OF CANE MOLASSES BY STEFFEN'S PROCESS. 

" Shortly after the announcement of the successful working of the 
separation process on a large scale certain London refineries employed 
a chemical expert to examine the process and report to them. As a 
successful application of this process would be of great importance to 
our cane planters, I obtained a copy of this report^ and shall give those 
portions not already included iu my description. 

" After speaking of the complete success of the Stefifen process in 
the treatment of beet molasses, Mr. Gill, the expert mentioned above, 
says : 

" * How far the same thing cau be said in regard to its application to the molasses 
obtained in the manufacture or refining of sugar from the cane depends on a variety 
of considerations, of which the following are some of the most important : 

' ' ' First. Is the sugar separated as pure as that obtained from the beet molasses, and 
is any of the glucose (altered and uncrystallizable sugar), which is always present 
in large quantities, precipitated along with the true cane sugar, and then again sot 
free when the lime compound is decomposed by the carbonic acid, and if so how far 
the fact will interfere with the economy and utility of the process ? 

" ' The answers to these questions are not clear iu the present state of the evidence. 
I am informed by Mr. Langen and his chemist that some glucose is precipitated, but 
that they do not know in how large a proportion. This would therefore have 
to be determined by experiment. I may say with certainty that if all or most of the 
glucose be precipitated with the sugar, and then again set free along with the sugar 
by the subsequent treatment with carbonic acid, that very little or no useful effect 
will be obtained, because glucose when present in solution with sugar greatly hinders, 
if it does not altogether prevent, the crystallization of an equal weight of the latter 
on evaporation, 

" ' That the evil indicated may attain large dimensions is shown by the fact that 



249 

second sirups obtained in the mannfactnre of Manrifins sugar contain, according to 
Dr. leery, from 22 to 4:5 per cent, of ghicose out of 100 total sngars. 

" ' Second. Will the mother liquid drain away completely through the cloth of the 
filter-presses from the precipitated sugar lime when molasses obtained from cane 
juice in the usual rough manner is the original material operated upon ? 

" ' Here again direct experience is practically wanting. In one experiment which 
I witnessed, and which was performed on a cane molasses of unknown origin, but 
believed to bo from a refinery, the filtration proceeded without any difficulty. I 
should remark that solutions of ordinary raw cane sugar can not bo filtered through 
a filter-press, since the gummy matters choke the pores of the cloth, and almost im- 
mediately. 

*' 'If the above two points can be settled in a favorable manner then the process will 
be as great a success in a chemical and mechanical sense as it is with beet molasses.' 

"Mr. Gill tben discusses tlie commercial couditions requisite for suc- 
cess. But as these conditions are so different in this country from those 
in London I shall not repeat them. In conclusion he says : 

" ' I can not advise your clients to incur the expense of adopting this process until 
they'have satisfied themselves by experiment that it is as applicable to the molasses 
of cane sugar as that of the beet. 

" ' I may add that sufficiently extended experiments could be made on a laboratory 

scale at an expense which would not exceed, say, £40, and which might be less. 

"'C. Haughton Gill. 
" 'To Messrs. Matheson & Grant, 

32 Walhrook, London, E. C 

*"Not having made any laboratory experiments on the treatment of 
cane molasses by Steffen's process, I can not add anything to the above 
report. 

^^ Estimate for the establishment of works for the treatment o/ 10,000 to 1^,000 kilograms 
(22,000 to 3'3,000 jjounds) of molasses per day. 

1 reservoir for molasses, 318 cubic feet capacity, fitted with valves $182. 50 

1 reservoir for water, 212 cubic feet capacity 132. 50 

1 measuring tank, with valve 112. 5l) 

1 scale, for weighing molasses 37. 50 

2 mixers, with connections, at $1,500 3,000.00 

2 automatic measuring apparatus for lime, at $162. .50 325. 00 

1 horizontal steam-pump, for the lime saccharate. Cylinder, 12.8 inches 

diameter; pump, 7.9 inches diameter; stroke, 15.8 inches 1,250.00 

1 safety-valve $37. .50 

1 gauge 10.00 

6 filter-presses, at $675 4.050.00 

6 iron funnels, at $43.75 , 262.50 

1 double trough, 34.5 feet long ' 105.00 

1 reservoir ; capacity, 88.3 cubic feet (for wash water) 87. .50 

1 archimedean screw, 37.4 feet long 440. 00 

1 saccharate mill 750. 00 

1 pump ; 2 plungers, 5.9 inches diameter, stroke 7.9 inches, including trans- 
mission of power 475. 00 

1 saccharate pump ; 2 plungers, 3.9 inches diameter, stroke, 7.9 inches... 375.00 

1 engine ; cylinder, 13.8 inches diameter, stroke, 27.6 inches 1, 125. 00 

* Since this was written experiments have been successfully made in treating 
molasses with lime for the decomposition of the glucoses preparatory to the use of a 
saccharate process for the separation of the cane sugar. 



250 

1 transmission of power (approxiniiitc) $725. 00 

1 ore-criisher, for lime 537.50 

I mill, to <,rriml the linio 1,212.50 

2elovatorH(iron),at$300 GOO. 00 

1 rotary sieve 600. 00 

1 hopper, for powdered lime 225. 00 

1 aspirator 437.50 

Total 17,155.00 

" The value of the franc in the above estiinatea is taken at 20 cents. 

" In addition to the cost of the machinery a royalty must be paid, 
depending upon the size of the plant and the length of the working 
season. 

"If the Steff'en process is worked in connection with a sugar-house, 
the royalty is $7,500 for works liaving a capacity to treat 22,000 pounds 
of molasses per day, or $10,000 if 33,000 pounds are treated. To these 
sums $2,500 and $3,750, respectively, must be added, if the Steffen pro- 
cess is to be employed after the regular campaign of the sugar-house is 
finished. 

" If the plant is to be employed the entire tear, only for the extrac- 
tion of the sugar from molasses obtained by purchase, the royalty is 
$10,000 for a daily capacity of 22,000 pounds; $13,750 for a daily 
capacity of 33,000 pounds. For larger plants, the royalty is fixed by 
special contract. 

"This process has already been adopted by a number of German su- 
gar-houses, and by eleven this season in Belgium. When I left France in 
October, the great central sugar-house at Cambrai was about to con- 
tract for the installation of the Stefien separation process. 

" Plates Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the disposition of the machinery 
for working the iStefiten process in connection with an ordinary sugar 
factory. 

" Note. — Mr. Francois Sachs, chemist of the Max le Docte Sugar- 
house, Gembloux, Belgium, has kindly given me the results of his ex- 
periments last season with the Steffen process. He says : 

"The separation i)roce8S for the extraction of the sugar from the molasses yields 
less sugar in actual practice when molasses alone is treated than was expected. In 
fact, it is necessary to add sugar in order to obtain a good crystallization. 

" Taking 100 kilograms of molasses containing 50 per cent, sugar, we have added 

24 kilograms of raw sugar (polarizing 8"J to 90 degrees) with the following losses 

based on the weight of the molasses : 

Per cent. 

(1) In the mother liquor * (reheated) 1..50 

(2) In the filter press deposits 3.27 

(3) In the scums from the carhonatation 0. G4 

Total 5.34 

" Then 50 kilograms of sugar in the molasses, minus 5.34 loss, leaves 44.66 kilograms 
in the masse-cuite. The masse-cuite gave 52.52 per cent, first sugar, or 23.45 per 
cent, of second molasses. There then remained 24.12 per cent, of second molasses 

* The mother liquor dissolves a small portion of the saccharate, which is reprecipi- 
tated on heating th<; liquor, and is mostly recovered in the filter presses. 



Plate 3. 





STEFFEN'S 



PROCESS FOR SEPARATING SUGAR FROM MoLASSES. PLAN OF FiRST FLOOR. 
Scale: l'K» 



Plate 4. 








Plate 4. 




Steffen's Process. Plan of Second Floor. 
Scale: 1-100. 



(To follow Plate 3.) 



Plate 6. 




End View. 



(Tc 



Plate 5. 




Plate 6. 





(To follow Plate 5.) 



Steffen's Process. End View. 

Scale: 1 100. 



STEFFEN'S Process. End View. 



251 

(the weight of raw sngar added not being talcen into accomit). The second molasses 
yiehled 2'>.'y2 per cent, sugar, or 0.03 per cent, of the molasses originally taken. The 
total amount of first and second sugars extracted iH'J3.48, plus (j.u:5, and equals 29.48 
per cent. The jiroportion of third sugar has not yet been determined." 

REPORT ON THE TURKIEWITSCH METHODS OF DIFFUSION. 

Turkiewitscli has p^o^Td that of all circumstances which insure good 
desaccharification of the chips, as number of cells composing the battery, 
temperature, and time of maceration, the last is the most important. To 
increase this factor, he replaces the long batteries by short ones. For 
a battery of twelve cells he substitutes two of six cells each. This causes 
an increase in the amount of beets worked and a heavier and purer 
juice. It also reduces the sucrose lost in the chips and the consump- 
tion of fuel to a minimum. Only slight changes in the connections and 
pipes are necessary to arrive at the desired result. The battery is 
operated in the following manner: 

(1 ) The chips are cut so fine that 100 grams represent a length of 
about 40 millimeters.* 

(2) The water should be heated to 30 or 40° E. and should enter the 
battery under a pressure of from 1 to 1^ atmosj)heres. 

(3) The cells should be filled and emptied as rapidly as possible. 

(4) The temperature should always be lower than it is in the old sys- 
tem, and should vary with the kind of'beetand the rapidity of work. 
The last cell (/. e., the one just filled) is not heated and the juice passes 
from it to the measuring-tank at the same temperature at which it 
entered. . Five is heated as soon as the required amount of juice has 
been drawn fronj G. The cells are to be heated as follows : 

oooooo 

420 57° 60O 50O Reaumur. 

(5) The heaters must not contain any water while the cells are being 
emptied. 

(6) The work must be so regulated that while Cell 1 Battery I is being 
filled with chiles. Cell 1 Battery II is emptied and washed. As soon as 
Celll Battery I has been filled, juice is forced into it from below and 
Cell 1 Battery II filled with chips. When the latter has been filled, 
juice is forced into it and then in turn Cell 1 Battery I and Cell 1 Bat- 
tery II are drawn off. 

In actual practice the above method has been found to almost double 
the time of maceration. 

• This corresponds to chips about 2 millimeters wide and li millimeters thick. 



252 

In the followiiip: tables are some average analyses made at the beet 
house Kaigovad while working according to the new system : 



C.'lls. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Degree 
Biix. 


Sucrose. 


Purity. 


Tempera- 
ture. 


1 










o 


2 


1.0037 
1. 0015 
1.0223 
1. 0380 


•1.00 
2.95 
5.65 
9.65 

11.80 


0.44 
1.84 
4.00 
7.16 
9.80 


44.00 
62.30 
70.70 
74.20 
83.10 


50 


3 


65.7 


4 


65 7 


5 


65.7 


6 


50.0 


1 





The purity of the normal beet juice was 80.60. The following figures 
afford a comparison between the two systems : 





Beets 

ground per 

day. 


Degree 
Brix, nor- 
mal juice. 




Decree 
Biix diffu- 
sion juice. 




Kilos. 
291, 854 

352, 433 

• 


15.10 
15.40 


0.31X95.5 


Per cent. 
134X0.08 

119X0.08 


10 30 


Two batteries of .six cells each 


100 
0.30X95.5 


11 60 


100 





Seventy-five per cept. of milled bagasse were obtained. The waste 
water showed 0.2° Brix; the juice from the exhausted chips 0.6° 
The beets contained 95 per cent, juice. 

The dilution in both methods is calculated as follows : 



A. Long battery. 

75X0. fi"^x95. 5% = 0. 429 
134x0, 2% = 0.268 

0. 697 
15.1X0.95=14.34 
— 0.70 



13. 64 solids extracted. 
13.64x100 

= 1.32 juice per 100 beets. 

10.3 

B. Short lattery. 



75 X 0. n% X 95. 5 % = 0. 429 
119x0. 2% = 0.238 

0. 667 
15.4X0.95 = 14.60 
— 0.67 

13.93X100 

11.6 



= 120 juice per 100 beets. 



253 

During the last season the beet house Mirowoka ran for five weeks 
according to the old and the remaining thirty-six days according to the 
new system. The following table makes the advantages of the new 
system manifest : 



/ 


n 

a 


t-i 


Normal juice. 





Dift'usion juice. 






a c 


n 




t-5 
-a 


■3 

(C A 

^°2 








t4 

.§1 










1 






"3 



System. 




<u 


sA 




<s 


t>i 
































d 
'A 



> 
< 


5 





P4 


3 




» 

n 




3 


1 







■3 2 
^8 


fH P. 






Kilos. 


Per ct. 








Per ct. 










Per c<. 


Kilos. 


Long battery. 


36 


275, 600 


16.41 


12.72 


77.43 


166. 


9.33 


7.32 


78.46 


0.523 


50. 


12.98 


1338 


Short battery. 


B6 


324, 300 


15.61 


12.00 


76.85 


132.5 


11.06 


8.71 


78.89 


0.499 


46.2 


11.82 


1504 



It becomes apparent that the above house has increased (Ij the 
daily amount ground by 17.4 per cent., (2) the diffusion juice by 24.33 
per cent., (?) and has lessened the (3) volume of juice by 32.6, (4) con- 
sumption of fuel by 1.16 per cent., (5) while the juice has a higher pu- 
rity and (G) the loss of sucrose has been reduced. We can safely assume 
that the new system increases the daily capacity of the house by 10 per 
cent.* 



GENERAL PLAN OF SUGAR-HOUSE. 

For the information of the many persons who have written for gen- 
eral intelligence in regard to a beet-sugar house, Mr. G. L. Spencer has 
prepared at my request the following plan for such a building. (Plates 
7, 8, 9.) 

It would be unnecessary in this place to give the general working 
details of such a building, since those who propose to build such houses 
would desire to modify them in so many cases that such a general plan 
in detail would be undesirable. What is given, therefore, is merely for 
the purpose of illustrating the principles upon which a beet-sugar fac- 
tory shoukl be built and the general arrangement and proportion of its 
various parts : 

Ground floor. (Plate 7.) 

1. Warehoue 1 for sugars. 

2. Packing room for sugars. 

3. Space for eight centritugals. 

4. Centrifugal engine. 

5. Hot room for low-grade sugars. 

6. Elevator. 

7. ft, 9. Vacuum pumps. 

10. Carbonic-acid-gas pump. 

11. Diffusion battery. 

12. Hydraulic beet transporter. 

13. Beet-wasbing apparatus. 



•Sucrerie beige, No. 3, October 1, 1888. 



254 

14. Beot-elevator. 

15. Driviug-euyine for cutters, etc. 
IC. Bone-black tilters. 

17. Koom for treatmeut of bone-black preparatory to revivification. 

18. Space for bouo-bkick kiln. 
Id. Chimney. 

20. Boiler-house and i)ump-rooui. 

21- Lime-kiln. — 

22. Koom for slaking lime. 

Second floor. (Plate «.) 

1. Space for sugar-bins. 

2. Room for iirst sugars. 

3. Hot room for second sugars, etc. 

4. Elevator. 

5. Carbonatati on pans. 
G. Triple effect. 

7. Bone-black filters. 

8. Diffusion battery. 

9. Pulp-room. 

10. Chutes for use in removing iiulps. 

11. Beet elevator. 

12. Space for filter presses. 

13. Laboratory. 

Third floor. (Plate 9.) 

1. The vacuum pans discharging into wagons, etc., iu the hot room as indi- 
cated by dotted lines from the pans. 
The dotted lines (continuous with the main walls) indicate the location of the at- 
tics, which are high enough to accommodate projecting portions of the cutter and the 
pulp presses. 

The general arrangement of a diifusion battery is shown in Plate 10, 
one of a sugar factory in Plate 11. These plates are taken from Bul- 
letin No. 8, and are printed from plates furnished by the Fives-Lille 
Company, No. 84 Eue Coumartin, Paris, France. 

COST. 

The cost of a beet-sugar factory depends on so many conditions that 
it will be impracticable to give anything more than a rough esti- 
mate of it. Much depends upon the character of the building itself, 
and this, for various reasons, should be made fire-proof, thus entailing 
the construction of a building of considerable cost. In regard to both 
the building and machinery, the total cost will depend largely upon the 
capacity of the house ; the cost, however, does not increase in the same 
ratio as the capacity. In other words, it may be stated that the cost of 
a beet-sugar factory capable of working 400 tons of beets per day would 
not be double the cost of one working 200 tons. A beet-sugar house 
based on an estimated capacity of 300 tons per day would probably be 
more in keeping with the character of the houses which are to be built 



r 




PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR. 
- Scale -j/szintoJft. - 



^ : 3 




PLAN OF THIRD FLOOR. 
- Scaie - '/32 into 1ft. - 



255 

iu this country for some time tbau any otlier. Witli a proper fire-proof 
buildin^^, and tlie best and latest machinery, such a factory would 
cost, ready for work, from $150,000 to $200,000. Factories, of course, 
can be built at a much less cost than this, but doubtless at the sacri- 
fice of efficiency in some of its parts, so that true economy would adv^o- 
cate the construction of a high-priced factory of the best workmanship 
and of the most approved modern style. 

Local considerations may also affect the cost of a factory, as distance 
of transportation of the machinery, nearness of iron and machine works, 
cost of land, etc. The Department has received many letters from per- 
sons conveying the impression that they have an idea that a beet-sugar 
factory can be built for a few thousand dollars, whereas it is seen from 
a general study of the problem itself that such a small outlay would 
be totally inadequate to secure a factory suitable for the work to be 
done. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Page. 

Achard, letter of, in Moniteur 12 

researches of 10 

Acreage in beet-seed culture 78 

Air in beets 77 

Alvarado, early history of the beet-sugar industry at 35-37 

experiments at 33 

manufacturing work at 209 

Area in the United States suitable to sugar-beet culture 169, 177 

of soil suitable for cultxiro of beets in California 118 

Ashes of beets, composition of , 128 

B. 

Babrinsky, rules of, in regard to silos in Russia 101 

Bajac harvester , 94, 95 

Barruel, method of extracting sugar of 22 

Becker, Dr. G. F., observations of 114, 115 

Beet, green top ^ 50 

gray top 51 

imperial - 49 

molasses, composition of 246 

pink top , 50 

root, structure of 51 

seed amelioration 73 

method of Peligot and Leplay 74 

Pellet 74 

preparation of, for planting 139, 140 

preservation of 46 

production of, at Carlier 76 

sugar factory, establishment of, in Prussia 26 

industry, extension of, in Germany 25 

in Europe, total production of, during past four years 40 

France in 1810 19 

the North west, report of Mr. J. D. Fredericksen 44, 218 

manufacture, attempts at 7, 8 

production of, in California, 1870, 1873 33 

Vilraoriu improved 51 

White Silesian 49 

Beets, varieties of 70 

grown in France 47 

Bohemia, soil and climate of 122 

Brabant sugar-beet 69,72 

Bulletin, object of 5,6 

Burr, Mr. E. C, letter of 85 

25474— Bull. 27 17 257 



258 
c. 

Page. 

California beets, analyees of, in laboratory 202 

experiments in 35, 192-194 

soils of, adapted to beet culture 107 

southern, sugar-beet culture in 204 

Calorisators, use of 235 

Camburgh sugar factory, description of 238 

Canada, beet-sugar industry in 211 

experiments in 34 

factories in 212 

Cane and beet sugar, comparison of 40 

statistics of production of 41 

in Russia 41 

sugar, production of, in Java 41 

Carbonation, process of 233 

Cellars, preservation of beets in, according to Walkhoif 102 

Champion and Pellet, observations of 47, 48, 52, 55 

on the relation between the weight of organic matters 

and ash 134,135 

Chaptal, report of 22 

Chatsworth, Illinois, beet-sugar factory at 37 

experiments at 32 

Chemistry and physiology of the beet 161-163 

Child, Mr. David Lee, experiments of 31 

Chino Ranch, experiments at 207 

Climate of California, description of 109,110 

Washington 121 

Continuous diffusion battery 229 

Corenwinder and Coutamine, experiments of 48 

Crops preceding beets 137 

Cultivation, conditions of.. 67 

directions for 144 

iuil)lements for 80-85 

method of, used at Alvarado 85, 86 

methods used in Bohemia 87-93 

D. 

Decaisne, M. , studies of, in structure of beet root 51 

Decorabrecque, M., method of, in selecting seed 63 

Deherain, Professor, experiments of 47 

Delaware, experiments in 35 

Demiatte, M., method of, in selecting "mothers" 62 

Department of Agriculture, analyses of beets by 210, 211 

Development of the beet 159-161 

conditions of 137 

Diffusion battery, arrangement of 228 

Directions for preparing soil 137-139 

Distance between rows, influence of 142, 143 

of beets in row. — 79,87 

rows 79 

Drainage, importance of 136 

Drouyu de I'Huys, M., observations of, on the effect of nitrogen 133 

Dubrunfaut, observations of, on the cost of produc^iion 30 

production of beet seed 59 



259 

Page. 

Dyer, Mr. E. H., data from 197-201 

letters from 203 

E. 

Eckenbrecher and Maercker, studies of, of typical forms of beets 163-168 

England, beet-sugar industry in 212,213 

Evaporation, apparatus for , 232 

Extractiou of the juices, apparatus for 227 

F. 

Farmyard manure, application of 7S 

Fertilizers, best method of applying 136 

Dr. Stammer's observations on 147, 148 

Financial disaster, avoidance of 6 

danger of 6 

Fond du Lac, Wis., experiments at 32 

Frederickseu, Mr. J. D., report of, on beet sugar in the Northwest 213-219 

G. 

Georges, M., observations of, on the effect of nitrogen 133 

Gill, Mr. C. Haughton, report of, on Steflen's process 248, 249 

Girard, Prof. Aime, studies of, in beet development 159 

H. 

Harvest and preservation of beets 99, 100 

Harvesting beets 93 

apparatus for 94 

Henry, Prof. W. A., letter from, in regard to Chatsworth 37 

report of 178-181 

Herzfeld, observations of, on nitrogenous manures 151, 152 

Hilgard, Prof. E. W., analyses of soils by 108,109,116-118 

description of climate in California by „ 109 

report of 107 

Hinze, Mr. Fred, experiments of 192 

Howes, commercial agent, observations of, on manuring in IJolicmia 154-158 

report of 87 

Huston, Prof. H. A., analyses by 178 

I. 

Imperial beet-sugar factories, establishment of 24 

Indiana, experiments in 177 

Inquiries relating to sugar-beets 5 

Introduction 5-8 

Iowa, experiments in 181 

J. 

Joulie, Professor, observations of 53,54,56 

on effect of nitrogen 132 

Juice, treatment of , 233 

K. 

Kansas, experiments in 190 

Kedzie, Dr. R. C, analyses by 178 



260 

Page. 

Kloin-Wanzlcben sii par-beet 69, 71 

Kooster, Mr., observatious of, ou drying pulps '222,223 

L. 

Labor, cheapness of 7 

Lawes aud Gilbert, observations of, ou the effect of fertilizers 134 

Legraud, M., exhibition of, at the Paris Exposition 75 

Lemaire, system of selecting beeta of 77 

M. 

Maercker, Professor, experiments of, in feeding pnlps 224-226 

observations of7 ou the effect of nitrogen 133 

Maine, experiments in 34 

Manufacture of sugar, outline of 220,227 

Mginures, influence of, on yield and richness of sugar 130, 131 

Manuring, methods of, in Bohemia 154 

Margraff, discoveries of.. 9 

Massachusetts, experiments in 34 

Massecuite, treatment of 240 

McMurtrie, Dr. William, observations of, on soil and climate 124-128 

special report of 9 

Meeker, Mr. E., letter from 119-121 

Meteorological conditions 169 

Signal Service tables on . . 170-175 

studies of Dr. William McMurtrie on 169-175,176 

Meyer & Buettner, apparatus of, for drying sliced beets 213 

Michigan, experiments in 178 

Mineral constituents removed by crop 128, 129 

Molasses, extraction of sugar from 244 

Mon tali vet, letter of 17 

report of, in Moniteur 16 

Mothers, selection of 43 

by Dippe 44,45 

Proskowetz 46 

Rabbethge 45 

N. 

Nadeau, Mr., experiments of 204-206 

Napoleon I., decree of 16, 18 

establishing beet-sugar factories in schools 21 

fall of, effect of, on beet-sngar industry 28 

Nebraska, experiments in - 183-185 

Neck of the beet, removal of 98,99 

New Jersey, experiments in 34 

Nicholson & Lloyd, Professors, analyses by 184 

Nitrate of soda, fertilizing with 152 

Nitrogen as nitrates, effect of., 132 

Nitrogenous manures, influence of, on the quality of the beet 151 

O. 

Oregon, sugar beet in 119 

Organic matters and ash, relation of 134, 135 

Oxnard, Mr. II. T., experiments of, at Grand Island, Nobr 184 



i 



261 

p. 

Pago. 

Paguoul, observatioue of, on the effects of nitrogeu 132 

Patrick, Prof. G. E. , analyses by 182, 183 

Pellet, M., observations of, on the iutluence of fertilizers 134 

Per cent, sugar in sugar-beefcs 10 

Peret, M., continuous diffuser of 229-232 

Petermann, Dr. A., contribution of, to the chemistry and physiology of 

the beet 161 

observations of, on nitrate of soda 152-163 

Phosphate slag, experiments with 152 

Plowing, depth of 78 

Potash, best method of applying 149-151 

Potassic and lime salts, action of. 74 

Prefatory note 3 

Preservation of beets 145 

best temperature for 145 

depth of covering in 146 

Production of seed 41 

Proskowctz, Dr. E. V., experiments of, with nitrogenous manures 153 

phospate olag 152, 153 

Pulps, drying of 222,223 

feeding experiments with 224-226 

preservation of 221 , 222 

silos for 220 

use and treatment of 220 

R. 

Rain- fall, amount of, necessary 176, 177 

in California 111-114 

Reynolds, Mr. John P., letter from, in regard to Chatsworth, 111 38 

S. 

Sachs, Mr. Francois, experiments of, on the Steflen process 250 

Sagnier, M., observations of 76 

Sanborn, Mr. T. F., analyses by 191,192 

Saturation, process of 233 

Schack-Sommer, Dr., experiments of 212, 213 

School for manufacture of beet sugar, establishment of, in France 23 

Seed, beet, production of 41 

Seeding 79 

by hand 79 

drill 79 

time of 141 

Separation process, chemistry of 244 

Shepard, Mr. James H., analyses by 190 

Silos in cellars, illustrations of 103, IO4 

Size and shape of beet, influence of , 75 

observations of Desprez upou 75 

Soaking seed, solution for 140 

Soil and climate of Bohemia 123-124 

character of, suitable for sugar-beets 105 

chemical analyses of 108,109,116-118 

constituents of 105, 106 

nitrogen in 105 



262 

Pago, 

Soil, observatious of Stammer on 106, 107 

of Washington I'il 

Sequel factory, fate of - 33 

South Dakota, oxperinicnts in 185-189 

Speucer, Mr. G. L., plans of, for a sugar factory 253, 254 

report of, in Bulletin No. 5 227-250 

Stable manure, amount of, necessary 130 

composition of . 129 

Stammer, Dr. Karl, observations of, on fertilizers 147 

work of, on sugar-beet 99 

Statistics of the beet-sugar industry 39 

in Germany 39 

Steffen process 248 

Stoebritz sugar factory, description of 234 

Subsoiling 78 

Sugar beet, culture area of 7 

early development of, in Germany 12 

improvement of 6(3 

industry, historical 9 

progress of, in America 31 

report of commission on 11 

seed, methods of procuring the best 68 

factory, cost of 254, 255 

general plan of - 253 

Summers, hot, in Kansas 7 

T. 

Temperature and rain-fall, relative importance of 177 

Turkiewitsch, diffusion battery of 251-253 

Typical forms of sugar- beets 1G3 



Vilmorin-Andrieux & Co., production of beet seed by 41 

Vilmorin, M., early recommeudal ions of 74 

experiments of 61 

M. Henri, description by, of varieties of beets in Franco 64 

experiments of 62 

white improved sugar-beet 70 

Violette, M., observatious of 53-55 

W. 

Walkhoff, Professor, observations of, on the production of boot seed 58 

Ware, Mr. Lewis S., description of methods of harvesting, by 95,98 

Washington, climate of 121 

soil of 121 

sugar-beet in 119 

Watsonville, Cal., experiments at 209 

factory, analyses of beets at 208 

Weight of beets 67 

Wet autnuui, influence of 170 

White French rich sugar beet 73 

improved Vilmorin beet 42 

Wisconsin, oxperiiuents in 178 



Lfc 0*07 



